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	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-12:/290183</id>
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	<title type="html">In wessen Namen?</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 16. April 2026 hat das Bundesministerium f&uuml;r Justiz und Verbraucherschutz den Referentenentwurf d...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 16. April 2026 hat das Bundesministerium f&uuml;r Justiz und Verbraucherschutz den Referentenentwurf des <a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzgebungsverfahren/DE/2026_Gesetz_gegen_digitale_Gewalt.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gesetzes zur St&auml;rkung des zivil- und strafrechtlichen Schutzes vor digitaler Gewalt</a> ver&ouml;ffentlicht. Er folgt auf breit diskutierte F&auml;lle wie den von Collien Fernandes oder des KI Chatbots Grok. Im&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;auch <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/deepfakes-und-die-strafrechtsfalle/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">kritischen</a>&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;Fokus stehen strafrechtliche Versch&auml;rfungen. Zivilrechtlich sollen Betroffene zuk&uuml;nftig mit mehr Auskunftsanspr&uuml;chen ausgestattet sein. Diese Erweiterung umfasst insbesondere einen gerichtlich angeordneten Zugriff auf&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;unterschieds- und anlasslos gespeicherte&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;IP-Adressen, Portnummern und Zeitstempel. Die Vorratsdatenspeicherung ist also zur&uuml;ck. Mit ihr eine funktionale Verkn&uuml;pfung von informationellen Grundrechtseingriffen und Gewaltschutz hergestellt, die rechtspolitisch vertraut wirkt. Evidenzbasiert ist sie nicht. Und grundrechtlich d&uuml;rfte sie Probleme aufwerfen.</p>
<h2>Der (neue) Auskunftsanspruch im Zivilverfahren</h2>
<p>Auf den ersten Blick wirkt das <a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzgebungsverfahren/DE/2026_Gesetz_gegen_digitale_Gewalt.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gesetz zur St&auml;rkung des zivil- und strafrechtlichen Schutzes vor digitaler Gewalt</a>wie Anlassgesetzgebung. Eine solche Einordnung &uuml;bersieht jedoch historische Kontinuit&auml;ten und unionsrechtliche Rahmung des Gesetzesvorhabens: Bereits im Jahr 2023, zur Zeit der Ampelregierung, hat das Bundesministerium der Justiz <a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Gesetzgebung/Eckpunkte/Digitale_Gewalt_Eckpunkte.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Eckpunkte zum Gesetz gegen digitale Gewalt</a> ver&ouml;ffentlicht. Sie sahen im zivilrechtlichen Bereich, &auml;hnlich wie der aktuelle Entwurf, Ma&szlig;nahmen wie richterlich angeordnete Accountsperren (aktuell &sect;&nbsp;4&nbsp;GgdG-E) oder Sicherungsanordnungen (&bdquo;<a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Gesetzgebung/Dokumente/Infopapier_Quick_Freeze_Verfahren.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Quick Freeze</em></a>&ldquo;, aktuell &sect; 3 GgdG-E) vor. Mit Ablauf der Umsetzungsfrist der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/HTML/?uri=OJ:L_202401385" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">RL 2024/1385</a> (GewaltschutzRL) am 14.6.2027 soll die nicht einvernehmliche Herstellung und Ver&ouml;ffentlichung von sexualisierten Deepfakes in den Mitgliedstaaten (ohnehin) unter Strafe stehen (Art. 5 I b iVm Erw&auml;gungsgrund 19 der GewaltschutzRL).</p>
<p>Was neu und auf den ersten Blick leicht zu &uuml;bersehen ist: &sect; 2 GgdG-E sieht einen gegen&uuml;ber dem geltenden <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/ttdsg/__21.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 21 II-IV TDDDG</a> hinausgehenden zivilrechtlichen Auskunftsanspruch vor. Das ist angesichts des fragmentarisch ausgestalteten &sect; 21 III TDDDG im Sinn des Rechtsschutzes begr&uuml;&szlig;enswert. Derzeit setzt ein Auskunftsanspruch voraus, dass absolute Rechte entweder aufgrund rechtswidriger audiovisueller Inhalte verletzt oder aufgrund spezifisch genannter Katalogstraftaten verletzt werden. Sofern es sich also z.B. &bdquo;nur&ldquo; um ein Foto oder eine Textnachricht handelt, bedarf es der rechtswidrigen Verwirklichung einer Katalogstraftat. Mit &sect;&sect; 185 oder 201a StGB&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;Beleidigung und Verletzung des h&ouml;chstpers&ouml;nlichen Lebensbereichs und h&ouml;chstpers&ouml;nlicher Rechte durch Bildaufnahmen&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;fallen typische digitale Gewaltph&auml;nomene unter die Katalogstraftaten. Ebenso einschl&auml;gig, aber nicht erfasst sind etwa die &sect;&sect; 126a und 184k StGB: Sie betreffen die Ph&auml;nomene <a href="https://www.djb.de/fileadmin/user_upload/presse/stellungnahmen/st23-17_Bildbasierte_Gewalt.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Doxing, Downblousing</em> und <em>Upskirting</em></a>. Diese Ausdifferenzierung ist historisch gewachsen. F&uuml;r Betroffene d&uuml;rfte sie ohne Weiteres weder ermittelbar noch nachvollziehbar sein.</p>
<p>Neben einer Vereinheitlichung auf der Basis von Rechtsverletzungen im Sinn des &sect; 1 Abs. 1 S. 2 a-c GgdG-E sieht &sect; 2 GgdG-E auch eine Erweiterung der auskunftsf&auml;higen Daten vor. Bisher stellt &sect; 21 TDDDG auf Bestandsdaten ab. In Zukunft werden neben den Bestandsdaten auch IP-Adresse, Zeitstempel und Portnummer erfasst sein (&sect; 2 Abs. 2 GgdG-E). Dem liegen die bereits am <a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Gesetzgebung/RefE/RefE_IP_Speicherung.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">22. April 2026 im Kabinett beschlossenen &Auml;nderungen der &sect;&sect; 174ff TKG-E</a> zugrunde (vgl. insbesondere &sect; 174 V 9 TKG-E). Sie sehen u.a. eine unterschieds- und anlasslose Speicherung der genannten Daten f&uuml;r die Dauer von drei Monaten vor. Damit ist das Thema Vorratsdatenspeicherung erneut auf dem Tisch. Dabei d&uuml;rfte die Gesetzgebung von einer Lockerung der grundrechtlichen Anforderungen durch die Entscheidung <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62021CJ0470" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EuGH, C-470/21 vom 30. April 2024 &ndash; <em>La Quadrature de Net</em> u.a.</a> ausgegangen sein.</p>
<h2>Unionsrechtliche Grundlagen und Grenzen</h2>
<p>Vorratsdatenspeicherung kann gerade in Deutschland auf eine lebhafte Rechtshistorie zur&uuml;ckblicken. Die Rechtsprechung von BVerfG und EuGH setzt ihr enge Grenzen. Bereits in <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2010/03/rs20100302_1bvr025608.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG, 1 BvR 256/08 vom 2. M&auml;rz 2010</a> hat das Bundesverfassungsgericht die damals in RL 2006/25/EG vorgesehene sechsmonatige Vorratsdatenspeicherung f&uuml;r mit Art. 10 GG unvereinbar erkl&auml;rt und die M&ouml;glichkeit einer Erstellung von Bewegungsprofilen mit dem Erfordernis einer hohen Eingriffsschwelle verkn&uuml;pft. In der Entscheidung <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62019CJ0793" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EuGH, C-793/19 und C-794/19 vom 22. September 2022 &ndash; <em>SpaceNet</em></a> hat der Gerichtshof zuletzt betont, dass eine anlass- und unterschiedslose Speicherung von IP-Adressen grunds&auml;tzlich nur dann mit Art. 7, 8 und 11 GrCH (<em>&bdquo;chilling effects&ldquo;</em>) vereinbar ist, wenn diese zur Bek&auml;mpfung schwerer Kriminalit&auml;t und Verh&uuml;tung schwerer Bedrohungen der &ouml;ffentlichen Sicherheit auf einen absolut notwendigen Zeitraum beschr&auml;nkt ist. Zudem bedarf es einer materiell- und verfahrensrechtlichen Einhegung sowie eines effektiven Missbrauchsschutzes.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62021CJ0470" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>La Quadrature de Net</em> u.a.</a> hat der EuGH nun eine Pr&auml;zisierung vorgenommen. Dabei fokussiert er den Zusammenhang von Eingriffsintensit&auml;t, Profilbildung und Rechtsgutschutz bzw. Verfolgung von Gemeinwohlzielen. Der EuGH geht davon aus, dass eine anlass- und unterschiedslose IP-Adressspeicherung nicht nur zur Bek&auml;mpfung schwerer Kriminalit&auml;t, sondern auch bei der Bek&auml;mpfung von Straftaten imAllgemeinen grundrechtskonform erfolgen kann, sofern die Eingriffsintensit&auml;t nicht als hoch einzustufen ist. Um die Intensit&auml;t des Eingriffs zu bemessen, orientiert sich der EuGH an tats&auml;chlichen M&ouml;glichkeiten zur Profilbildung: Erfolgt eine Speicherung von IP-Adressen in der Funktion eines Identit&auml;tsdatums (Bestandsdatum), ist nicht von einem schweren Eingriff auszugehen. Das bedeutet, es ist sicherzustellen, dass keine Verkn&uuml;pfungen mit Verkehrs- oder Standortdaten stattfinden, sondern ausschlie&szlig;lich auf die Identifikation der betreffenden Person abgestellt wird. Dreh- und Angelpunkt ist also auch hier&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;weiterhin&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;die Profilbildung.</p>
<p>Bereits an dieser Stelle ergeben sich grundrechtliche Schwierigkeiten mit &sect; 2 GgdG-E. &Uuml;ber die Integration von Portnummern und Zeitstempel (vgl. &sect; 176 Abs. 1 1-4 TKG-E) erm&ouml;glicht die Bestimmung nicht nur die Identifikation von Ger&auml;ten im mobilen Netz und &ouml;ffentlichen WLAN, sondern auch eine Erstellung von Standort- und Bewegungsprofilen. Dass es sich dabei um keine Erm&auml;chtigungsgrundlage, sondern lediglich um eine tats&auml;chliche M&ouml;glichkeit f&uuml;r Profilbildung handelt, ist unionsrechtlich unerheblich. Der EuGH stellt genau auf tats&auml;chliche M&ouml;glichkeiten ab, wenn er Profilbildung mit hoher Eingriffsintensit&auml;t verbindet. Eine Rechtfertigung wird damit nur mehr zum Zweck der Bek&auml;mpfung schwerer Kriminalit&auml;t und Verh&uuml;tung schwerer Bedrohungen der &ouml;ffentlichen Sicherheit denkbar sein.</p>
<p>Damit stellt sich die Frage, wo die Grenze zwischen Bek&auml;mpfung schwerer Kriminalit&auml;t und Verh&uuml;tung schwerer Bedrohungen der &ouml;ffentlichen Sicherheit und der Bek&auml;mpfung von Straftaten im Allgemeinen zu ziehen ist &ndash; und in welchen Bereich die nunmehr &uuml;ber die Vereinheitlichung relevanten Delikte des &sect; 1 Abs. 1 S. 2 a-c GgdG-E fallen. Die erste Frage bemisst sich dem EuGH zufolge &ndash; soweit es keine einschl&auml;gigen Unionsrechtsregelungen gibt &ndash; nach dem Recht der Mitgliedstaaten. Ma&szlig;geblich sind dabei sich aus den Art. 7, 8, 11, 51 I GrCH ergebende Verh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;igkeitsanforderungen. Jedenfalls ist es nach dem EuGH unzul&auml;ssig, Straftaten als im genannten Sinn schwer zu qualifizieren, wenn &bdquo;es sich angesichts der vorherrschenden gesellschaftlichen Bedingungen in dem betreffenden Mitgliedstaat nicht um schwere Straftaten handelt&ldquo; (<a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document?source=document&amp;mode=DOC&amp;pageIndex=0&amp;docid=292741&amp;part=1&amp;doclang=DE&amp;text=&amp;dir=&amp;occ=first&amp;cid=21235535" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EuGH, C-178/22 vom 30. April 2024</a>). Ohne die Einordnung der in &sect; 1 Abs. 1 S. 2 a-c GgdG-E abschlie&szlig;end vorzunehmen, ist auf Folgendes hinzuweisen: Lediglich ein Bruchteil der genannten Delikte ist Bestandteil der Katalogstraftaten des &sect; 100a II 1 StPO (wie z.B. &sect;&sect; 130, 184b, 184c II StGB). Zumindest die &sect;&sect; 131, 184, 184a, 184c, 185, 186, 241 StGB sehen ein Strafmindestma&szlig; unter einem Jahr Freiheitsstrafe vor, es handelt sich also um Vergehen iSd &sect; 12 StGB. Bei den &sect;&sect; 185, 186, 201a, 201b, 238 und 241 StGB handelt es sich um Antragsdelikte. Auch dem Gesetzesentwurf ist nicht zu entnehmen, dass eine Zuordnung zur Bek&auml;mpfung schwerer Kriminalit&auml;t und Verh&uuml;tung schwerer Bedrohungen der &ouml;ffentlichen Sicherheit ma&szlig;gebliches Aufz&auml;hlungskriterium gewesen w&auml;re. Vielmehr ist als entscheidend ausgewiesen, dass die &bdquo;<a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzgebungsverfahren/DE/2026_Gesetz_gegen_digitale_Gewalt.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">genannten Straftaten h&auml;ufig im digitalen Raum begangen [werden] und eine besondere N&auml;he zum </a><a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzgebungsverfahren/DE/2026_Gesetz_gegen_digitale_Gewalt.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">allgemeinen Pers&ouml;nlichkeitsrecht [aufweisen]</a>&ldquo;. Im Ergebnis d&uuml;rfte das verfolgte Gemeinwohlziel daher (zumindest auch) die Bek&auml;mpfung von Straftaten im Allgemeinen sein. Eine grundrechtskonforme Zweck-Mittel-Relation d&uuml;rfte der Gesetzesentwurf verfehlen.</p>
<h2>Spitzfindigkeiten angesichts systematischer Straflosigkeit?</h2>
<p>Sind das nicht alles nur Spitzfindigkeiten angesichts der grassierenden digitalen Gewalt? Diese Frage kann sich auch mit Blick auf die weiteren Verh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;igkeitserw&auml;gungen des EuGH stellen: So ber&uuml;cksichtigt auch <em>La Quadrature de Net</em> u.a., mit Blick auf online begangene oder durch das Internet in der Begehung oder Verbreitung erleichterte Straftaten &ndash; also die hier einschl&auml;gigen digitalen Straftaten, dass eine anlass- und unterschiedslose IP-Adressspeicherung als effektivste und grundrechtsschonendste Ma&szlig;nahme zu werten sein kann. Ma&szlig;geblicher Abw&auml;gungsumstand ist f&uuml;r den Gerichtshof dabei die Gefahr systematischer Straflosigkeit bei fehlendem Zugang zu IP-Adressen (Rz 119).</p>
<p>Rasch ist man an den <a href="https://www.lto.de/recht/nachrichten/n/fall-ulmen-fernandes-spanisches-gericht-lehnt-zustaendigkeit-ab-fall-geht-nach-deutschland" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Fall Collien Fernandes</a> erinnert, die sich angesichts der Kultur von Straflosigkeit in Deutschland vorerst an die spanischen Instanzen gewandt hatte. Dass sich der angesprochenen Kultur jedoch mit einer unterschieds- und anlasslosen IP-Adressspeicherung effektiv begegnen lie&szlig;e, verm&ouml;gen die relevanten Gesetzesentw&uuml;rfe nicht evidenzbasiert zu begr&uuml;nden. Vielmehr zeigt die j&uuml;ngst ver&ouml;ffentlichte <a href="https://www.bka.de/DE/UnsereAufgaben/Forschung/ForschungsprojekteUndErgebnisse/Dunkelfeldforschung/LeSuBiA/lesubia_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dunkelfeldstudie LeSuBiA</a> (auch) im digitalen Gewaltbereich eine signifikant niedrige Anzeigequote (2,4 Prozent unter Frauen / 0,9 Prozent unter M&auml;nnern). Nach wie vor fehlt es an zentralen Zust&auml;ndigkeiten und fl&auml;chendeckenden Weiterbildungen im Bereich digitale Gewalt. Demokratief&ouml;rdernde Projekte werden gestrichen; die Chance zur Einf&uuml;hrung einer Verbandsklage wurde vergeben. All diese Faktoren indizieren eine Beg&uuml;nstigung von systematischer Straflosigkeit, denen sich mit weniger eingriffsintensiven Ma&szlig;nahmen begegnen lie&szlig;e: etwa durch die Schaffung zentraler Zust&auml;ndigkeiten f&uuml;r digitale Gewalt, vergleichbar etwa mit der <a href="https://www.berlin.de/polizei/aufgaben/praevention/cybercrime/artikel.854755.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zentralen Ansprechstelle Cybercrime f&uuml;r die Wirtschaft (ZAC)</a> in Berlin und einer finanziellen St&auml;rkung zivilgesellschaftlicher Anlaufstellen, wie etwa im Fall der neu geschaffenen Beratungsstelle <a href="https://lsvd.berlin/queersafe-berlin/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">QueerSafe</a> (ebenfalls Berlin)&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;potentiell ausgestattet mit Verbandsklagerechten. Dem w&auml;re eine umfassende Erf&uuml;llung der durch Art. 11 der Istanbul-Konvention begr&uuml;ndeten <a href="https://www.institut-fuer-menschenrechte.de/aktuelles/detail/geschlechtsspezifische-gewalt-in-deutschland-was-die-daten-ans-licht-bringen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verpflichtungen zur Datenerhebung vorzuschalten. Sie ist Voraussetzung f&uuml;r evidenzbasiertes Vorgehen</a>. Und noch einmal anders gedacht: Selbst&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;wie urspr&uuml;nglich vorgesehen&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;erst einmal dem <em>Quick-Freeze</em>-Verfahren eine Chance zu geben, h&auml;tte die Eskalationsspirale der Eingriffsintensit&auml;t sanfter gedreht. Warum es notwendig war, unmittelbar zu einer unterschieds- und anlasslosen Speicherung von IP-Adressen zu greifen, w&auml;re noch substantiiert zu begr&uuml;nden. Gleiches gilt f&uuml;r die Speicherdauer. Denn jedenfalls ist eine solche Datenspeicherung nach dem EuGH auf das zeitlich absolut notwendige Minimum zu beschr&auml;nken. Wieso dieses ausgerechnet bei drei Monaten ansetzen sollte, ist bisher nicht nachvollziehbar dargelegt.</p>
<h2>Zur&uuml;ck bleiben Zweifel</h2>
<p>Der Gesetzesentwurf versteht digitale Gewalt als &bdquo;<a href="https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzgebungsverfahren/DE/2026_Gesetz_gegen_digitale_Gewalt.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Handlungen im digitalen Raum oder mit digitalen Mitteln, die in rechtlich gesch&uuml;tzte G&uuml;ter, oft Pers&ouml;nlichkeitsrechte, eingreifen. Kennzeichnend ist die Nutzung digitaler Kommunikationsmittel und informationstechnischer Infrastrukturen</a>&ldquo;. Als solche ist sie Ausdruck gesellschaftlicher Macht- und Ungleichheitsverh&auml;ltnisse. Das bringt auch Justizministerin Hubig zum Ausdruck, wenn sie sich auf Gis&egrave;le Pelicot und den Anspruch <a href="https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/service/newsletter-und-abos/bulletin/bmjv-gewalt-gegen-frauen-2416072" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">beruft</a>, dass die Scham die Seite wechseln muss. Neben Frauen sind etwa <a href="https://www.destatis.de/Europa/DE/Thema/Wissenschaft-Technologie-digitaleGesellschaft/digitale_gewalt.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Queers oder Rassismusbetroffene</a> besondere Ziele digitaler Gewalt. Strukturell ist sie auf (Wieder)Herstellung einer spezifischen Geschlechterordnung, (Re)Etablierung von Rassismen als Struktur unserer Gesellschaft gerichtet. Im Einzelfall dr&uuml;cken sich diese Versuche als &Uuml;berwachung, Kontrolle und Einsch&uuml;chterung&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;in Form von <em>Deepfakes, Doxing oder Hate Speech</em>&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;aus. Selbst wenn wir (nur) diese Ausdrucksformen bek&auml;mpfen wollen, braucht es Auseinandersetzung mit diesen Zusammenh&auml;ngen. Das zeigen Ergebnisse wie die <a href="https://www.bka.de/DE/UnsereAufgaben/Forschung/ForschungsprojekteUndErgebnisse/Dunkelfeldforschung/LeSuBiA/lesubia_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dunkelfeldstudie LeSuBiA</a>. Es braucht Fragen nach der positiven Dimension von Meinungsfreiheit (wessen Freiheit sch&uuml;tzt der Staat?), nach dem der Meinungsfreiheit inh&auml;renten Gleichheitsanspruch und der Gefahr, vulnerable Stimmen im (digitalen) Forum demokratischer Meinungsbildung zu verlieren. Wie schon <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48704528" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Aufarbeitungen</a> der sogenannten K&ouml;lner Silvesternacht gezeigt haben, bergen oberfl&auml;chliche Aufmerksamkeitskonjunkturen die Gefahr, feministische Anliegen als St&uuml;tzpfeiler von Grundrechtseinschr&auml;nkungen und Repressionen zu funktionalisieren. Die aktuellen Debatten um digitale Gewalt bieten eine Chance, es anders zu machen. Es w&auml;re schade, sie zu verpassen. Gerade in Zeiten, in denen Rufe nach Schutz unserer Demokratie lauter und lauter werden.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vorratsdatenspeicherung/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">In wessen Namen?</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-12T09:06:16+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Petra Sußner</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-12T09:06:16+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="grundrechte"/>

	<category term="mpi-csl-beitrag"/>

	<category term="unionsrecht"/>

	<category term="vorratsdatenspeicherung"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-12:/290184</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-eu-sanctions-against-jacques-baud-and-the-crisis-of-freedom-of-expression/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The EU Sanctions against Jacques Baud and the Crisis of Freedom of Expression</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On 15 December 2025, the Council of the European Union placed (a further) twelve individuals and two...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On 15 December 2025, the Council of the European Union placed (a further) twelve individuals and two entities on a <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2025/12/15/russian-hybrid-threats-council-sanctions-twelve-individuals-and-two-entities-over-information-manipulation-and-cyber-attacks/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sanctions list</a>, intended to counter Russian &ldquo;information manipulation and interference&rdquo;. Among them &ndash; as number 57 &ndash; is the Swiss military analyst, former colonel and long-serving UN and NATO official <a href="https://www.srf.ch/news/schweiz/eu-und-desinformation-sprachrohr-russlands-warum-die-eu-einen-schweizer-blockiert" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jacques Baud</a>. His assets are frozen, any financial or other economic support is prohibited, and he may neither enter nor leave EU territory. Since Baud already lives in Brussels, he is in effect stranded there; without functioning accounts, without income and without any lawful means of travelling to his Swiss homeland, which has <a href="https://www.swissinfo.ch/ger/informationskriege/sanktionierte-schweizerinnen-und-der-heikle-vorwurf-der-desinformation/90851478" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">not adopted the relevant EU sanctions regime</a>.</p>
<p>The measure forms part of a (mis)development that has so far attracted surprisingly little legal attention: since the 17th sanctions package of May 2025, the toolkit of &ldquo;restrictive measures&rdquo; &ndash; originally aimed at the office-holders of despotic regimes &ndash; has increasingly also been hitting journalists, analysts, and publicists, including, on occasion, EU citizens. The Baud case shows in exemplary fashion how far this practice has drifted from minimum rule-of-law standards. As early as October 2025, a <a href="https://michael-von-der-schulenburg.com/rechtsgutachten-sanktionen-gegen-einzelpersonen/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">legal opinion</a> by the former CJEU judge Ninon Colneric and the international-law scholar Alina Miron (Universit&eacute; d&rsquo;Angers) concluded that the present regime is, taken as a whole, incompatible with the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the ECHR.</p>
<p>The supposedly &ldquo;smart&rdquo; sanctions directed against private &ldquo;disinformers&rdquo; are not only contrary to fundamental rights, but also foolish. They amplify the reach and impact of the very propaganda they seek to combat, while at the same time discrediting the Union itself. Instead of trusting in the power of the fundamental right to freedom of expression, an overly anxious Union renders itself legally vulnerable.</p>
<h2>The Legal Framework: Decision (CFSP) 2024/2643 and Regulation (EU) 2024/2642</h2>
<p>Baud&rsquo;s listing is based on <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2024/2643/oj/eng" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Council Decision (CFSP) 2024/2643</a> of 8 October 2024 and the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/2642/oj" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Regulation (EU) 2024/2642</a> adopted to implement it. The framework permits restrictive measures against individuals involved in actions or policies of the Russian government which undermine or threaten the fundamental values of the EU and its Member States, their security, independence and integrity, as well as those of international organisations and third countries. Individual listing is effected by a Council implementing regulation on a proposal from the High Representative or a Member State, unanimously, with the public excluded and without any prior hearing of the person concerned. The measures consist in the freezing of all funds and economic resources, the prohibition of economic support by third parties (Art. 2 of Regulation 2024/2642) and, for natural persons, a complete ban on entry and transit (Art. 1(1) of CFSP 2024/2643 as amended by Decision CFSP 2025/963).</p>
<p>The sanction takes effect immediately upon publication in the Official Journal. Anyone who continues to do business with Baud or enters into an employment or publishing contract with him risks incurring criminal and liability consequences of their own &ndash; under German law now tightened by the <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/sanktdg/SanktDG.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sanctions Enforcement Act</a> and the Act on the Adaptation of Criminal Offences and Sanctions for Breaches of Restrictive Measures, adopted in January 2026 (a detailed account of how the sanctions mechanism operates can be found <a href="https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/1102364/EU-6-030-25.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>).</p>
<h2>The Diffuse Accusation</h2>
<p>In a few lines, <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2025/12/15/russian-hybrid-threats-council-sanctions-twelve-individuals-and-two-entities-over-information-manipulation-and-cyber-attacks/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Implementing Regulation (EU) 2025/2568</a> accuses Baud of being &ldquo;a regular guest on pro-Russian television and radio programmes&rdquo;, of acting as a &ldquo;mouthpiece for pro-Russian propaganda&rdquo; and of spreading conspiracy theories, &ldquo;for example by accusing Ukraine of orchestrating its own invasion in order to join NATO.&rdquo;</p>
<p>Anyone who takes the trouble to look more closely at the multitude of Baud&rsquo;s publications and public appearances will find that these allegations &ndash; even if they are often disputed by Baud&rsquo;s supporters &ndash; are at least in part accurate. Thus Baud propagates the claim that Ukraine, with a view to the Western integration it sought, had an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqSztEQprgg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">interest in its own invasion</a>. The Russian &ldquo;special military operation&rdquo;, he claims, was provoked by Ukraine through intensified shelling of the breakaway eastern regions and Crimea. Baud also regularly points to a 2019 statement by Zelensky&rsquo;s later adviser on strategic communications, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xNHmHpERH8" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Oleksij Arestowytsch</a>, to the effect that only NATO membership could permanently protect Ukraine from forced Russification, but that the price for this would be a Russian attack on Ukraine.</p>
<p>The problem with the allegations therefore lies &ndash; contrary to what is regularly assumed in the discussion so far &ndash; not primarily in their lack of truth. The allegations are problematic because, by their content and their substantive indeterminacy, they are incapable of justifying the massive interferences with fundamental rights based on them. Even someone who &ndash; like the author of this contribution &ndash; regards the allegation that Ukraine provoked its own invasion as misleading will readily classify this assertion as an expression of opinion protected by Art.&nbsp;11 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (on the interferences with further fundamental rights and freedoms not pursued further here, see <a href="https://michael-von-der-schulenburg.com/wp-content/uploads/25-10-31-Legal-Opinion-Sanctions-against-individuals-final-new_DE_final-NC1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). Precisely because the European Union, in response to the Russian war of aggression, is engaged on Ukraine&rsquo;s side with financial, military, logistical and humanitarian assistance, it must be possible to conduct the public debate within the Union openly as to the occasion, sense, nature and aims of this support. Sanctioning dissenting expressions of opinion appears, particularly in times of war, as a problematic narrowing of discourse.</p>
<p>The EU sanctions regime, and indeed Baud&rsquo;s specific listing, do acknowledge this problem. For that reason &ndash; at least according to the wording of the decisions &ndash; Baud&rsquo;s expressions of opinion are not in themselves made the occasion for the sanctions. Rather, the sanctions are justified by the additional accusation that they stand in an inner connection with &ldquo;actions or policies attributable to the government of the Russian Federation which undermine or threaten the stability or security in a third country (Ukraine)&rdquo;. Baud, it is said, is responsible for these governmental measures, implements them or supports them.</p>
<p>From what this asserted connection to measures of the Russian government actually derives, however, is not explained in publicly accessible documents. Baud points out &ndash; rightly, as far as can be seen &ndash; that since the Russian assault on Ukraine he has <a href="https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/politik-gesellschaft/geopolitik/eu-sanktioniert-jacques-baud-wie-ein-blitz-aus-heiterem-himmel-li.10010959" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">no longer appeared in Russian media</a>, so as not even to give rise to any suspicion of closer ties to Russia. The EU&rsquo;s sanctioning order also speaks only very vaguely of &ldquo;pro-Russian television and radio programmes&rdquo; and of the dissemination of &ldquo;pro-Russian propaganda&rdquo;. What counts as &ldquo;pro-Russian&rdquo;, however, is a matter of definition and may serve the EU as a means of sanctioning critics of its own political positions on a broad scale. The notion of &ldquo;support&rdquo; for Russian governmental measures likewise appears entirely without contours. Apparently it is enough in this respect merely to spread a hostile narrative agreeable to the Kremlin. Against this background, the wording used by the deputy German government spokesman Martin Giese with regard to the sanctioning of Baud at the <a href="https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/newsroom/regierungspressekonferenz-2748626" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Federal Press Conference of 17 December 2025</a> (&ldquo;everyone who is active in this field must reckon with it happening to them too&rdquo;) sounds, less like that of a government representative in a Union subject to the Charter of Fundamental Rights than like the threat of a Russian official.</p>
<h2>The Indeterminacy of the Sanctions Regime and the Idea of Freedom of Expression</h2>
<p>The indeterminacy of the accusations directed against Baud is an emanation of the indeterminacy that already characterises the constituent elements of the legal bases of the sanctions regime. Particularly problematic in this respect appears Art. 2(3)(a)(iv) of Regulation (EU) 2024/2642, which also forms the legal basis for the measures taken against Baud. Under it, it is sufficient for the sanctioning of private individuals that they engage in the &ldquo;planning, directing, direct or indirect participation in, support for or other facilitation of the use of coordinated information manipulation and interference&rdquo;. These terms leave the Council an almost unlimited margin of discretion. Does not every expression of opinion deviating from the official political positions of the EU &ldquo;facilitate&rdquo; the coordinated information manipulation and interference of the Russian government? Where the constituent elements themselves display no contours, the sanction threatens to become an instrument of political disciplining. The case of Jacques Baud shows in exemplary fashion that the EU institutions are prepared to interpret these self-created sanction grounds as broadly as conceivable.</p>
<p>The sanctions regime as such therefore already appears incompatible with Art. 11 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. It is true that the General Court, in its <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62022TJ0125" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">RT France judgment</a> of 27 July 2022 (T-125/22, paras. 75 et seq.) regarded the relevant legal bases as suitable to justify a prohibition on the broadcasting activity of the channel RT (Russia Today). It did so, however, by relying decisively on the fact that the channel &ldquo;was under the continuous direct or indirect control of the leadership of the Russian Federation&rdquo; (para. 174) and had carried out &ldquo;continuous and concerted propaganda activities&rdquo; on its behalf. And in its judgment on the sanctions imposed on <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:62015TJ0262" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dmitrii Kiselev</a>, head of the Russian news agency &ldquo;Rossiya Segodnya&rdquo; (T-262/15 of 15 June 2017), the General Court rightly emphasised that the notion of &ldquo;supporters&rdquo; of Russian propaganda must, in the interest of the effective protection of freedom of expression, remain confined to a circle of persons narrowly delimited in an objective manner (paras. 74 et seq.). The exceptional justification of the sanctions imposed on Kiselev followed, against this background, from his position as head of a state Russian news agency, from the radical character of his propagandistic statements, from his integration into the Russian apparatus of power and from the in fact only very relative restriction of his freedom of expression.</p>
<p>Jacques Baud is not, so far as can be seen, accused of anything comparable. As a person living and working in the EU, he is restricted in his freedom of expression by the sanctions far more directly than a member of the Russian nomenklatura living in Russia. Baud may be a &ldquo;<em>Russlandversteher&rdquo; </em>&ndash; a &ldquo;Russia-understander&rdquo; &ndash; who, owing to his lifelong preoccupation with the country, brings more understanding to bear for Russian politics than the Union finds agreeable. But it is precisely the intellectual irritation caused by such statements of those who think differently that the freedom of expression guaranteed by fundamental rights is aimed at protecting.</p>
<p>In its settled case-law the CJEU emphasises the fundamental importance of freedom of expression for the democratic social order of the Union: &ldquo;That fundamental right, guaranteed in Article 11 of the Charter, constitutes one of the essential foundations of a pluralist, democratic society, and is one of the values on which, under Article 2 TEU, the Union is founded.&rdquo; (CJEU, C&#8209;203/15 and C&#8209;698/15, 21 December 2016, Tele2 Sverige, para. 93). In its RT France decision cited above, the General Court additionally referred to the settled case-law of the European Court of Human Rights, which &ndash; entirely in line in this respect with the case-law of the German Federal Constitutional Court &ndash; consistently emphasises that freedom of expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic society (ECtHR, 22479/93, 28 September 1999, &Ouml;zt&uuml;rk v. Turkey, &sect; 49). Subject to Art. 10(2) ECHR, this freedom applies not only to &ldquo;information&rdquo; or &ldquo;ideas&rdquo; that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or unimportant, but also &ndash; in accordance with the requirements of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness, without which there is no &ldquo;democratic society&rdquo; &ndash; to those that offend, shock or disturb (ECtHR, 5493/72, 7 December 1976, Handyside v. United Kingdom, &sect; 49; cf. also ECtHR, 28470/12, 5 April 2022, NIT S.R.L. v. Republic of Moldova, &sect; 177 and the case-law cited therein).</p>
<p>How this idea of freedom of expression is supposed to be compatible with the sanctioning of Jacques Baud&rsquo;s statements therefore remains unclear &ndash;even if one regards his opinions, with very good reasons, as mistaken and irritating.</p>
<h2>On the Disproportionality of the Sanctions</h2>
<p>Even though the sanctions thus prove, in themselves, to be an impermissible interference with freedom of expression, it is worth taking an additional look at the question of their (dis)proportionality.</p>
<p>Under Art. 2(1) of Regulation 2024/2642, &ldquo;all funds and economic resources belonging to, owned, held or controlled by the natural [&hellip;] persons [&hellip;] listed in Annex I [&hellip;] shall be frozen&rdquo;. Under Art. 2(2) of Regulation 2024/2642, no funds or economic resources may be &ldquo;made available, directly or indirectly, to or for the benefit of&rdquo; the sanctioned persons. Exceptions are possible under Art. 3 of Regulation 2024/2642 only insofar as they concern the satisfaction of the basic needs of the sanctioned persons and their family members and the financing of their legal defence. As the comparable case of the Berlin journalist <a href="https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/article/hueseyin-dogru-eu-sanktionen-pressefreiheit-ausgehebelt-10033662" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">H&uuml;seyin Do&#287;ru</a> shows, this is understood, at least by the German authorities, to mean merely financial provision at the level of the subsistence minimum. Under Art. 1(1) of CFSP 2024/2643, the Member States are moreover obliged &ldquo;to prevent the entry into, or transit through, their territories of the natural persons listed in the Annex&rdquo;.</p>
<p>In their severity, their comprehensiveness and their procedurally ambush-like character, these measures move clearly outside any proportionality. According to the original intention of the sanctions regime, their restrictive force was meant to correspond to the power of the power-politicians and oligarchs to be sanctioned. In Baud&rsquo;s case, these instruments are directed against a Swiss pensioner. Confiscation of assets, prohibition on making funds available, a ban on entry and exit, a de facto occupational ban and monthly subsistence allowances are severe, fundamental interferences. That those affected are, by contrast, relegated to onerous and time-consuming legal protection obtainable only after the event makes their situation particularly problematic. That all this is supposed to be a legally acceptable, proportionate Union response to unwelcome expressions of opinion cannot be maintained with a clear conscience.</p>
<h2>Foolish Sanctions and the Crisis of Freedom of Expression</h2>
<p>The Union justifies its sanctions against Baud and other private individuals by reference to the war, the threat posed by hybrid operations, and the public interest in a resilient information space. These are concerns to be taken seriously. But they do not justify a practice that undermines the rule-of-law architecture of the Union itself. By its conduct, the EU violates not only the fundamental rights of the sanctioned persons. It also damages its own standing as a community of law and values. This will give further impetus to the anti-European narrative cultivated by pro-Russian, Trumpist and right-wing populist quarters. The unlawful, hysterical-seeming and foolish sanctions are thus an expression of a wider-reaching crisis of freedom of expression. It is to be hoped that the Union&rsquo;s judiciary will put a sufficiently powerful stop to this misguided development.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-eu-sanctions-against-jacques-baud-and-the-crisis-of-freedom-of-expression/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The EU Sanctions against Jacques Baud and the Crisis of Freedom of Expression</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-12T08:55:15+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Bernhard Wegener</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-12T08:55:15+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu sanctions"/>

	<category term="freedom of expression"/>

	<category term="mpi-csl-beitrag"/>

	<category term="russian war against ukraine"/>

	<category term="sanctions"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-12:/290185</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rebuilding-hungarys-civic-space/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Rebuilding Hungary’s Civic Space</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Hungary&rsquo;s April 2026 elections that ended 16 years of Viktor Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s autocratic rule have rightly ge...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Hungary&rsquo;s April 2026 elections that ended 16 years of Viktor Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s autocratic rule have rightly generated urgent debate about constitutional repair. Beyond rebuilding the rule of law and democratic institutions, a successful transition will also need an engaged citizenry who value and trust these institutions and are eager to participate in public life. The transition therefore presents a critical opportunity to rebuild the legal, policy, and financial frameworks needed for an independent civil society to flourish. An enabling environment for civil society is not merely a desirable feature of a healthy democracy; it is a structural precondition for achieving and sustaining the accountability, pluralism, and institutional resilience that the new democratic transition should deliver for Hungarians. Without this, even well-designed constitutional reforms risk becoming elite processes, insulated from the citizens whose lives and futures they are meant to improve. This post argues that achieving this requires a coherent package of legislative, institutional, and financial measures, and that Hungarian civil society organisations have already mapped out what that package must contain as a minimum.</p>
<h2>Restrictive Laws and Their Chilling Effect</h2>
<p>The government&rsquo;s campaign against independent civil society groups critical of its illiberal policies spanned over twelve years. From 2014 onwards, coordinated smear campaigns in government-aligned media were meant to undermine organisations&rsquo; credibility and call into question the public value they create. Increasing the pressure, a succession of legal instruments, each building on the last, were adopted to stigmatise, starve, and strangle independent organisations.</p>
<p>The legislative assault began in 2017 with the first foreign agent law in the European Union that mirrored its Russian predecessor. Act LXXVI of 2017 on the Transparency of Organisations Supported from Abroad (Lex NGO 2017) stigmatised certain civil society organisations as &ldquo;foreign-funded organisations&rdquo; via a discriminatory mechanism designed to burden, stigmatise, and deter civil society activity. In 2020, the <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/affair?sort=AFF_NUM-DESC&amp;searchTerm=%22C-78%2F18%22&amp;publishedId=C-78%2F18" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Court of Justice of the EU found</a> the Hungarian legislation unlawful, affirming that EU law protects the right to freedom of association as it &ldquo;constitutes one of the essential bases of a democratic and pluralist society&rdquo;. The government&rsquo;s response to the judgment was revealing: rather than genuinely comply, it waited over ten months before nominally repealing the Lex NGO 2017 and simultaneously adopting its replacement without any public consultation. The <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/05/HHC_LexNGO2021_info_note.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">new law</a> (Act XLIX of 2021), albeit less menacing, still alarmed hundreds of civil society organisations, who feared discretionary State Audit Office inspections and conclusions about their operations published in public reports that could not be challenged before a court.</p>
<p>On World Refugee Day in June 2018, Parliament passed the <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/hungarian-government-marks-world-refugee-day-by-passing-law-to-jail-helpers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;Stop Soros&rdquo; law,</a> criminalising individuals and organisation who assist asylum-seekers, including legal aid providers, using vague language, creating a tool in the hands of the government to intimidate members of civil society. In November 2021, in a ruling on the legal action brought by the European Commission, the <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/cjeu-stop-soros-law-judgment/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CJEU struck that law down too</a>, and the government dragged its feet until December 2022 when it eventually changed the Criminal Code provision in question so that the chilling effect on helping asylum-seekers remained in place. However, the European Commission never challenged in court the <a href="https://helsinki.hu/wp-content/uploads/Criminalization-and-taxation.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">special &ldquo;immigration tax&rdquo;</a> on donors funding migration-related activities, even if it repeatedly <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/publications/2025-rule-law-report-communication-and-country-chapters_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">recommended repealing it</a> in its annual Rule of Law Reports.</p>
<p>The LGBTIQ community was subjected to the same intimidation through a succession of constitutional amendments and laws that progressively restricted their fundamental rights, including the right to freedom of expression and assembly. These restrictions were not incidental to the broader dismantling of civic space as they were part of the same logic, using law to define and exclude communities deemed threatening to the political order. However, the <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/hungary-bans-lgbti-march-resembling-budapest-pride/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">banning of Pride marches</a> in spring 2025, that threatened organisers with prison and participants with high fines, backfired. About 300,000 people marched peacefully in Budapest, albeit under the auspices of the mayor of Budapest and not in a formal assembly recognised by the police.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2024/02/Sovereignty_Protection_Act_breaches_EU_law_2024.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sovereignty Protection Law</a>, adopted in December 2023, marked a further escalation in the hostile environment for free civil society organisations which were exposing government wrongdoings and encouraging public debate. The law created a new state agency, the Sovereignty Protection Office, with broad investigative powers over organisations deemed to jeopardise Hungary&rsquo;s sovereignty by representing foreign influence, without meaningful procedural safeguards against the Office&rsquo;s investigations and slanderous reports. The law also amended the Criminal Code using intentionally vague terms to sanction with prison terms the use of foreign funding for political campaigning. Hungarian NGOs <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/the-constitutional-court-gave-the-green-light-to-state-arbitrariness-the-case-against-the-sovereignty-protection-office-continues-in-strasbourg/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">turned to the Constitutional Court with no avail</a>, and also applied to the European Court of Human Rights. Based on the infringement action brought be the European Commission, the pending CJEU judgment on the Sovereignty Protection Law &ndash; following <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/affair?lang=en&amp;sort=AFF_NUM-DESC&amp;searchTerm=%22C-829%2F24%22&amp;publishedId=C-829%2F24" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Advocate General&rsquo;s Opinion</a> in February 2026 &ndash; is expected to pronounce that the law is not compatible with EU law and can provide a direct legal basis for its repeal.</p>
<p>Following up on PM Orban&rsquo;s threat to &ldquo;<a href="https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/03/15/hungarys-russia-friendly-prime-minister-attacks-the-eu-in-nationalist-speech" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">clean out the bed bugs</a>&rdquo;, a May 2025 bill on the Transparency of Public Life went further still: it would have allowed the government to blacklist a broad range of for-profit and non-profit entities, freezing their access to their income and their ability to operate &ndash; what civil society organisations named &ldquo;<a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/operation-starve-and-strangle-20250522/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Operation Starve and Strangle</a>&rdquo;. Eventually the bill did not proceed to a parliamentary debate.</p>
<p>Despite years of constant intimidation, smear campaigns, and legal and administrative threats, Hungarian human rights organisations maintained their determination to operate and built a strong coalition to withstand pressure, offer support and promote civic space. But the cumulative effect of this restrictive architecture was precisely what it was designed to achieve: <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/from-chilling-effect-to-immediate-harm-consequences-of-the-sovereignty-protection-act/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a chilling effect on civil society activity</a>, a drain on organisational resources diverted to defending themselves, and the gradual normalisation of a public sphere in which independent voices were sidelined and operated under constant stress.</p>
<p>Acknowledging the painful toll on society, Prime Minister P&eacute;ter Magyar, in his inaugural parliamentary address on 9 May 2026, gave a remarkable <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/may/10/hungary-peter-magyar-apologises-to-those-wronged-under-orban-in-first-speech-pm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">apology</a> to civil society actors, journalists, teachers, and health workers who had been stigmatised and harassed for speaking out. That acknowledgement matters and has given a sense of much-needed relief that attacks on civil society are finally over. But acknowledgement without structural remedy, the restoration of foundational civic space rights and an enabling environment, is insufficient.</p>
<h2>The Needed Shift From Resistance to Reform Capacity</h2>
<p>If the past decade demanded that civil society operate primarily in defensive mode &ndash; protecting vulnerable groups, accountability, and its own space under sustained pressure &ndash; the coming period demands something qualitatively different.</p>
<p>The task ahead is no longer to resist erosion but to participate in the rebuilding of democracy and rule of law actively and independently. As the drive to correct past distortions can inherently produce new risks and imbalances or undermine due process, both informal and formal civil society groups have a distinctive role to play here as a structured, independent force that holds reform processes to democratic standards even while supporting their objectives.</p>
<p>This dual function &ndash; sustaining public pressure for democratic and constitutional reform while maintaining independence from government &ndash; requires organisational capacity, adequate funding, and a safe legal environment that makes this possible. It also requires a clear shared agenda. The most concrete articulation of what that agenda must contain has emerged from within Hungarian civil society itself.</p>
<h2>An Agenda for Strengthening Hungary&rsquo;s Civic Space</h2>
<p>The Civiliz&aacute;ci&oacute; Coalition &ndash; a platform of over fifty independent Hungarian NGOs that emerged as a response to the Lex NGO 2017 &ndash; has put forward <a href="https://civilizacio.net/en/civil-minimum-2026-en-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Civil Minimum 2026,</a> a minimum set of legal and policy recommendations to strengthen an enabling environment for civil society.</p>
<p>First, to strengthen the legal framework for civic space, the coalition calls for repealing restrictive laws (e.g., the Sovereignty Protection Law and the Lex NGO 2021), reviewing administrative burdens on civil society, and developing an incentivising legal framework for civic organising as well as for philanthropic foundations and corporate giving. These are the minimum conditions for civil society to operate without the threat of state-directed interference, in a stable and predictable environment.</p>
<p>The second set of recommendations call for enhancing the transparency and integrity of public funding to civil society and democracy promotion by reforming national-level public funding structures to ensure they are open, criteria-based, and insulated from political capture. Meaningful civil society involvement in the design, monitoring and evaluation of EU funds should continue and build on the partnership principle enshrined in EU cohesion policy as well as through the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights monitoring framework.</p>
<p>Thirdly, after long years of <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/deficiencies-of-the-law-making-process-in-hungary/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">systemic deficiencies</a>, substantive public consultation processes should be reinstated both with government structures and in parliament. Experimenting with direct citizen participation methods could help sustain the high levels of civic engagement that have emerged during the campaign (including the TISZA party&rsquo;s network of volunteers) and continue since the elections. Hungary should also strive to re-engage with the <a href="https://www.opengovpartnership.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Open Government Partnership</a>, &nbsp;a multi-stakeholder organisation, and strengthen freedom-of-information frameworks.</p>
<p>Crucially, the upcoming constitutionally relevant legislative processes and the design of any future constitution-making process will be testing cases for participatory governance where effective input from citizens, civil society, and academia will be key to build democratic legitimacy.</p>
<h2>The European Union&rsquo;s Civic Space Tools and Limits</h2>
<p>While they cannot replace national action, the EU&rsquo;s legal and policy instruments provide an important supporting framework for civic space. Since the <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/unfreezing-eu-funds-without-melting-the-rule-of-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">EU funding conditionality super milestones</a> &ndash; the criteria whose fulfilment is linked to the release of frozen EU funds &ndash; were designed primarily around judicial independence and anti-corruption measures, and not the full spectrum of civic space conditions, nurturing most if not all key features of a robust environment for civil society, free media, or culture will remain a task for the new Hungarian government.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, a solid European framework is evolving to protect civic space and should be actively mobilised. The CJEU&rsquo;s judgment on Hungary&rsquo;s Lex NGO 2017, as well as the relevant ECtHR case law on freedom of association, Venice Commission opinions, the <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/document/8c30975d-bc1c-4415-8dcd-a71cb28f3662_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Commission&rsquo;s Strategy for Civil Society</a> (November 2025), and the <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/03/10/fundamental-rights-council-approves-conclusions-on-the-role-of-the-civic-space/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Council conclusions on the role of civic space to protect and promote fundamental rights</a> (March 2023) and <a href="https://fra.europa.eu/en/themes/civil-society" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the EU Fundamental Rights Agency&rsquo;s monitoring about civic space pressures</a>, together constitute a clear normative framework against which domestic reforms can and should be assessed. The EU partnership principle, which underpins civil society&rsquo;s formal role in monitoring EU funds implementation, provides a concrete mechanism for restoring structured civil society participation that has immediate legal and financial implications. European Union institutions, including Member States, should follow these domestic reform processes closely, providing normative leverage and technical support, to encourage initiatives that should be carried out at the national level.</p>
<h2>The Real Test</h2>
<p>P&eacute;ter Magyar&rsquo;s government&rsquo;s stated commitment to dismantling institutional distortions and rebuilding a pluralistic constitutional order is both welcome and necessary. But commitments require legal operationalisation, and legal operationalisation requires political will sustained beyond the initial post-election momentum. Institutional legacies, policy neglect, and political polarisation will not disappear overnight. Additionally, there is a particular risk, visible in comparative transitions, including in Poland, that the energy for structural reform dissipates once the most visible or urgent measures have been taken.</p>
<p>Thus, it will be civil society&rsquo;s task in this context to ensure that the full set of civic space restoration measures remains on the agenda throughout the re-democratisation process, and that the required legal and policy tools are treated as matters of structural necessity rather than sectoral interest. The Civiliz&aacute;ci&oacute; Coalition&rsquo;s Civil Minimum provides a useful practical starting point. Whether the new Hungarian government engages with it substantively will be an early and telling indicator of the depth of its democratic commitments.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rebuilding-hungarys-civic-space/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Rebuilding Hungary&rsquo;s Civic Space</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-12T08:46:43+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Márta Pardavi</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-12T08:46:43+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="civil society"/>

	<category term="democratic restoration"/>

	<category term="ecthr"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="european union"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="lex ngo 2017"/>

	<category term="on law and politics in the hungarian transition"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-12:/290186</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/sanktionen-baud-meinungsfreiheit/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Die EU-Sanktionen gegen Jacques Baud und die Krise der Meinungsfreiheit</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 15. Dezember 2025 setzte der Rat der Europ&auml;ischen Union (weitere) zw&ouml;lf Personen und zwei Organis...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 15. Dezember 2025 setzte der Rat der Europ&auml;ischen Union (weitere) zw&ouml;lf Personen und zwei Organisationen auf eine <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/de/press/press-releases/2025/12/15/russian-hybrid-threats-council-sanctions-twelve-individuals-and-two-entities-over-information-manipulation-and-cyber-attacks/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sanktionsliste</a>, die der Abwehr russischer &bdquo;Informationsmanipulation und Einflussnahme&ldquo; dienen soll. Darunter befindet sich &ndash; als Nummer 57 &ndash; der Schweizer Milit&auml;ranalyst, fr&uuml;here Oberst und langj&auml;hrige UN- und NATO-Mitarbeiter <a href="https://www.srf.ch/news/schweiz/eu-und-desinformation-sprachrohr-russlands-warum-die-eu-einen-schweizer-blockiert" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jacques Baud</a>. Sein Verm&ouml;gen ist eingefroren, jede Bereitstellung von Geldern oder wirtschaftlichen Ressourcen ist verboten, er darf das EU-Gebiet weder betreten noch verlassen. Da Baud bereits in Br&uuml;ssel lebt, sitzt er dort faktisch fest; ohne funktionsf&auml;hige Konten, ohne Einkommen und ohne legale Reisem&ouml;glichkeit in seine Heimat Schweiz, die das einschl&auml;gige EU-Sanktionsregime <a href="https://www.swissinfo.ch/ger/informationskriege/sanktionierte-schweizerinnen-und-der-heikle-vorwurf-der-desinformation/90851478" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nicht &uuml;bernommen hat</a>.</p>
<p>Die Ma&szlig;nahme reiht sich in eine (Fehl-)Entwicklung ein, die bislang erstaunlich wenig juristische Aufmerksamkeit erf&auml;hrt: Seit dem 17. Sanktionspaket vom Mai 2025 trifft das urspr&uuml;nglich gegen die Funktionstr&auml;ger despotischer Regime gerichtete Instrumentarium der &bdquo;restriktiven Ma&szlig;nahmen&ldquo; zunehmend auch Journalisten, Analysten und Publizisten &ndash; darunter gelegentlich auch EU-B&uuml;rger. Der Fall Baud zeigt exemplarisch, wie weit sich diese Praxis von rechtsstaatlichen Mindeststandards entfernt hat. Schon im Oktober 2025 kam ein <a href="https://michael-von-der-schulenburg.com/rechtsgutachten-sanktionen-gegen-einzelpersonen/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rechtsgutachten</a> der ehemaligen EuGH-Richterin Ninon Colneric und der V&ouml;lkerrechtlerin Alina Miron (Universit&eacute; d&rsquo;Angers) zu dem Schluss, dass das gegenw&auml;rtige Regime insgesamt mit der EU-Grundrechtecharta und der EMRK unvereinbar sei.</p>
<p>Die gegen private &bdquo;Desinformanten&ldquo; gerichteten nur vermeintlich &bdquo;smarten&ldquo; Sanktionen sind nicht nur grundrechtswidrig, sondern auch dumm. Sie verst&auml;rken die Reichweite und Wirkungsmacht der Propaganda, die sie zu bek&auml;mpfen suchen, und diskreditieren zugleich die Union selbst. Statt auf die Macht der grundrechtlich garantierten Meinungsfreiheit zu vertrauen, macht sich die &uuml;ber&auml;ngstlich agierende Union selbst rechtlich angreifbar.</p>
<h2>Der Rechtsrahmen: Beschluss (GASP) 2024/2643 und Verordnung (EU) 2024/2642</h2>
<p>Die Listung Bauds gr&uuml;ndet auf dem <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2024/2643/oj" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Beschluss (GASP) 2024/2643</a> des Rates vom 8. Oktober 2024 sowie der zu seiner Umsetzung erlassenen <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/2642/oj" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verordnung (EU) 2024/2642</a>. Der Rahmen erm&ouml;glicht restriktive Ma&szlig;nahmen gegen Einzelpersonen, die an Handlungen oder politischen Ma&szlig;nahmen der russischen Regierung beteiligt sind, welche die Grundwerte der EU und ihrer Mitgliedstaaten, ihre Sicherheit, Unabh&auml;ngigkeit und Integrit&auml;t sowie jene internationaler Organisationen und Drittl&auml;nder untergraben oder bedrohen. Die Listung erfolgt durch Durchf&uuml;hrungsverordnung des Rates auf Vorschlag des Hohen Vertreters oder eines Mitgliedstaats, einstimmig, unter Ausschluss der &Ouml;ffentlichkeit, ohne vorherige Anh&ouml;rung der betroffenen Person. Die Ma&szlig;nahmen umfassen das Einfrieren s&auml;mtlicher Gelder und wirtschaftlicher Ressourcen, das Bereitstellungsverbot gegen&uuml;ber Dritten (Art.&nbsp;2 VO 2024/2642) sowie f&uuml;r nat&uuml;rliche Personen ein vollst&auml;ndiges Ein- und Durchreiseverbot (Art.&nbsp;1 Abs.&nbsp;1 GASP 2024/2643 in der durch Beschluss GASP 2025/963 ge&auml;nderten Fassung).</p>
<p>Die Sanktion wirkt unmittelbar mit Ver&ouml;ffentlichung im Amtsblatt. Wer mit Baud weiterhin Gesch&auml;fte macht oder einen Arbeits- oder Verlagsvertrag mit ihm schlie&szlig;t, riskiert eigene Straf- und Haftungsfolgen &ndash; nach deutschem Recht inzwischen versch&auml;rft durch das <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/sanktdg/SanktDG.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sanktionsdurchsetzungsgesetz</a> und das im Januar 2026 verabschiedete Gesetz zur Anpassung von Straftatbest&auml;nden und Sanktionen bei Verst&ouml;&szlig;en gegen restriktive Ma&szlig;nahmen (eine ausf&uuml;hrliche Darstellung der Sanktionsmechanik findet sich <a href="https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/1102364/EU-6-030-25.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>).</p>
<h2>Der diffuse Vorwurf</h2>
<p>Die <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/de/press/press-releases/2025/12/15/russian-hybrid-threats-council-sanctions-twelve-individuals-and-two-entities-over-information-manipulation-and-cyber-attacks/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Durchf&uuml;hrungsverordnung (EU) 2025/2568</a> wirft Baud in wenigen Zeilen vor, er sei &bdquo;regelm&auml;&szlig;ig Gast in prorussischen Fernseh- und Radioprogrammen&ldquo;, fungiere als &bdquo;Sprachrohr f&uuml;r prorussische Propaganda&ldquo; und verbreite Verschw&ouml;rungstheorien, &bdquo;indem er beispielsweise die Ukraine bezichtigt, ihre eigene Invasion herbeigef&uuml;hrt zu haben, um der Nato beizutreten.&ldquo;</p>
<p>Wer sich die M&uuml;he macht und die Vielzahl der Publikationen und &ouml;ffentlichen Auftritte Bauds n&auml;her betrachtet, wird feststellen, dass diese Vorw&uuml;rfe &ndash; auch wenn sie von Unterst&uuml;tzern Bauds oft bestritten werden &ndash; wenigstens in Teilen zutreffend sind. So verbreitet Baud die Aussage, die Ukraine habe mit Blick auf die von ihr angestrebte Westintegration ein <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqSztEQprgg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Interesse an ihrer eigenen Invasion</a> gehabt. Die russische &bdquo;milit&auml;rische Spezialoperation&ldquo; sei von der Ukraine durch einen intensivierten Beschuss der abtr&uuml;nnigen &ouml;stlichen Regionen und der Krim provoziert worden. Baud verweist zudem regelm&auml;&szlig;ig auf eine Aussage des sp&auml;teren Beraters Selenskyjs f&uuml;r strategische Kommunikation, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xNHmHpERH8" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Oleksij Arestowytsch</a>, aus dem Jahr 2019, wonach nur eine Nato-Mitgliedschaft die Ukraine dauerhaft vor einer Zwangsrussifizierung sch&uuml;tzen k&ouml;nne, der Preis daf&uuml;r aber ein russischer Angriff auf die Ukraine sein werde.</p>
<p>Die Problematik der Vorw&uuml;rfe liegt demnach zun&auml;chst &ndash; anders als in der bisherigen Diskussion h&auml;ufig unterstellt &ndash; nicht prim&auml;r in ihrem fehlenden Wahrheitsgehalt. Problematisch sind die Vorw&uuml;rfe, weil sie ihrem Inhalt und ihrer inhaltlichen Unbestimmtheit nach die mit ihnen begr&uuml;ndeten massiven Grundrechtseingriffe nicht zu rechtfertigen verm&ouml;gen. Auch wer &ndash; wie der Verfasser dieses Beitrags &ndash; den Vorwurf, die Ukraine habe ihre eigene Invasion provoziert, f&uuml;r irref&uuml;hrend h&auml;lt, wird diese Behauptung doch ohne weiteres als grundrechtlich gesch&uuml;tzte Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung einordnen k&ouml;nnen &nbsp;(zu den hier nicht weiter thematisierten Eingriffen in weitere Grundrechte und Grundfreiheiten, siehe <a href="https://michael-von-der-schulenburg.com/wp-content/uploads/25-10-31-Legal-Opinion-Sanctions-against-individuals-final-new_DE_final-NC1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>). Gerade weil sich die Europ&auml;ische Union in Reaktion auf den russischen Angriffskrieg auf der Seite der Ukraine mit finanzieller, milit&auml;rischer, logistischer und humanit&auml;rer Hilfe engagiert, muss die &ouml;ffentliche Auseinandersetzung &uuml;ber Anlass, Sinn, Art und Ziele dieser Unterst&uuml;tzung innerhalb der Union offen gef&uuml;hrt werden k&ouml;nnen. Die Sanktionierung abweichender Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen erscheint gerade in Kriegszeiten als problematische Verengung des Diskurses.</p>
<p>Auch das EU-Sanktionsregime und die konkrete Listung Bauds erkennen diese Problematik durchaus an. Die Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen Bauds werden deshalb &ndash; jedenfalls dem Wortlaut der Beschl&uuml;sse nach &ndash; auch nicht f&uuml;r sich genommen zum Anlass der Sanktionen gemacht. Die Sanktionen werden vielmehr mit dem zus&auml;tzlichen Vorwurf begr&uuml;ndet, sie st&uuml;nden in einem inneren Zusammenhang mit &bdquo;Handlungen oder politische[n] Ma&szlig;nahmen, die der Regierung der Russischen F&ouml;deration zuzurechnen sind und die die Stabilit&auml;t oder die Sicherheit in einem Drittland (Ukraine) untergraben oder bedrohen&ldquo;. Baud sei f&uuml;r diese Regierungsma&szlig;nahmen verantwortlich, setze diese Ma&szlig;nahmen um oder unterst&uuml;tze sie.</p>
<p>Woraus sich dieser behauptete Zusammenhang zu Ma&szlig;nahmen der russischen Regierung eigentlich ergibt, wird in &ouml;ffentlich zug&auml;nglichen Dokumenten allerdings nicht erl&auml;utert. Baud verweist &ndash; soweit erkennbar zu Recht &ndash; darauf, er sei seit dem russischen &Uuml;berfall auf die Ukraine <a href="https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/politik-gesellschaft/geopolitik/eu-sanktioniert-jacques-baud-wie-ein-blitz-aus-heiterem-himmel-li.10010959" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nicht mehr in russischen Medien aufgetreten</a>, um jeden Verdacht n&auml;herer Verbindungen zu Russland gar nicht erst aufkommen zu lassen. Die Sanktionsanordnung der EU spricht auch nur sehr unbestimmt von &bdquo;prorussischen Fernseh- und Radioprogrammen&ldquo; und von der Verbreitung &bdquo;prorussischer Propaganda&ldquo;. Was &bdquo;prorussisch&ldquo; ist, ist aber Definitionsfrage und kann der EU dazu dienen, Kritiker der eigenen politischen Positionen in weitem Umfang zu sanktionieren. Auch der Begriff der &bdquo;Unterst&uuml;tzung&ldquo; von russischen Regierungsma&szlig;nahmen erscheint vollkommen konturenlos. Offenbar soll es insoweit bereits gen&uuml;gen, ein dem Kreml genehmes feindliches Narrativ zu verbreiten. Die auf die Sanktionierung Bauds bezogene Formulierung des stellvertretenden deutschen Regierungssprechers Martin Giese in der <a href="https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/newsroom/regierungspressekonferenz-2748626" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bundespressekonferenz vom 17. Dezember 2025</a> (&bdquo;alle, die auf diesem Feld unterwegs sind, m&uuml;ssen damit rechnen, dass es auch ihnen passieren kann&ldquo;) klingt vor diesem Hintergrund weniger wie die eines Regierungsvertreters in der der Grundrechte-Charta unterworfenen Union als wie die Drohung eines russischen Offiziellen.</p>
<h2>Die Unbestimmtheit des Sanktionsregimes und die Idee der Meinungsfreiheit</h2>
<p>Die Unbestimmtheit der gegen Baud gerichteten Vorw&uuml;rfe ist Ausfluss der Unbestimmtheit, die schon die Tatbest&auml;nde der rechtlichen Grundlagen des Sanktionsregimes kennzeichnet. Besonders problematisch erscheint dabei Art.&nbsp;2 Abs.&nbsp;3&nbsp;lit.&nbsp;a, iv) VO (EU) 2024/2642, der auch die Rechtsgrundlage f&uuml;r die gegen Baud ergriffenen Ma&szlig;nahmen bildet. Danach gen&uuml;gt f&uuml;r die Sanktionierung von Privatpersonen die &bdquo;Planung, Steuerung, unmittelbare oder mittelbare Beteiligung an, die Unterst&uuml;tzung oder anderweitige Erleichterung des Einsatzes koordinierter Informationsmanipulation und Einflussnahme&ldquo;. Diese Begriffe lassen dem Rat einen nahezu unbegrenzten Ermessensspielraum. &bdquo;Erleichtert&ldquo; nicht jede Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung, die von den offiziellen politischen Positionen der EU abweicht, die koordinierte Informationsmanipulation und Einflussnahme der russischen Regierung? Wo schon der Tatbestand keine Konturen aufweist, droht die Sanktion zum Instrument politischer Disziplinierung zu werden. Der Fall Jacques Baud zeigt beispielhaft, dass die EU-Organe bereit sind, diese selbst geschaffenen Sanktionstatbest&auml;nde denkbar weit zu interpretieren.</p>
<p>Schon das Sanktionsregime als solches erscheint deshalb als unvereinbar mit Art.&nbsp;11 EU-Grundrechte Charta. Zwar hat das EuG im <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62022TJ0125" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Urteil RT France</a> vom 27.7.2022 (T-125/22, Rn.&nbsp;75 ff.) die entsprechenden Rechtsgrundlagen f&uuml;r tauglich befunden, ein Verbot der Sendet&auml;tigkeit des Senders RT (Russia Today) zu rechtfertigen. Es hat dabei allerdings entscheidend darauf abgestellt, dass der Sender &bdquo;unter der st&auml;ndigen direkten oder indirekten Kontrolle durch die F&uuml;hrung der Russischen F&ouml;deration stand&ldquo; (Rn.&nbsp;174) und in deren Auftrag &bdquo;kontinuierliche und konzertierte Propagandaaktionen durchgef&uuml;hrt&ldquo; habe. Und auch in seinem Urteil &uuml;ber die gegen den Leiter der russischen Nachrichtenagentur &bdquo;Rossiya Segodnya&ldquo; Dimitrii Kiselev verh&auml;ngten Sanktionen (T-262/15 v. 15.6.2017) hat das EuG zu Recht betont, dass der Begriff der &bdquo;Unterst&uuml;tzer&ldquo; der russischen Propaganda im Interesse des effektiven Schutzes der Meinungsfreiheit auf einen auf objektive Weise eng begrenzten Kreis von Personen beschr&auml;nkt bleiben m&uuml;sse (Rn.&nbsp;74&nbsp;ff.). Die ausnahmsweise Rechtfertigung der gegen Kiselov verh&auml;ngten Sanktionen ergebe sich vor diesem Hintergrund aus seiner Position als Leiter einer staatlichen russischen Nachrichtenagentur, aus dem radikalen Charakter seiner propagandistischen &Auml;u&szlig;erungen, aus seiner Einbindung in den russischen Machtapparat und aus der faktisch nur sehr relativen Einschr&auml;nkung seiner Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungsfreiheit.</p>
<p>Jacques Baud wird Vergleichbares, soweit erkennbar, nicht vorgeworfen. Als in der EU lebende und arbeitende Person wird er durch die Sanktionen in seiner Meinungsfreiheit auch viel unmittelbarer beschr&auml;nkt als ein in Russland lebendes Mitglied der russischen Nomenklatura. Baud mag ein &bdquo;Russlandversteher&ldquo; sein, der schon wegen seiner lebenslangen Besch&auml;ftigung mit dem Land f&uuml;r die russische Politik mehr Verst&auml;ndnis aufbringt, als es der Union gef&auml;llt. Gerade die gedankliche Irritation durch entsprechende &Auml;u&szlig;erungen Andersdenkender ist es aber, auf die die grundrechtlich garantierte Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungsfreiheit abzielt.</p>
<p>Der EuGH betont in st&auml;ndiger Rechtsprechung die f&uuml;r die demokratische Gesellschaftsordnung der Union fundamentale Bedeutung der Meinungsfreiheit: &bdquo;Dieses in Art. 11 der Charta gew&auml;hrleistete Grundrecht stellt eine der wesentlichen Grundlagen einer demokratischen und pluralistischen Gesellschaft dar, die zu den Werten geh&ouml;rt, auf die sich die Union nach Art. 2 EUV gr&uuml;ndet.&ldquo; (EuGH, C&#8209;203/15 und C&#8209;698/15, 21.12.2016, Tele2 Sverige, Rn. 93). Das EuG hat in seiner oben zitierten RT France-Entscheidung erg&auml;nzend auf die st&auml;ndige Rechtsprechung des Europ&auml;ischen Gerichtshofs f&uuml;r Menschenrechte verwiesen, der &ndash; insoweit ganz der Rechtsprechung des Bundesverfassungsgerichts entsprechend &ndash; stets betont, dass die Freiheit der Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung eine der wesentlichen Grundlagen einer demokratischen Gesellschaft bilde (EGMR, 22479/93, 28.9.1999, &Ouml;zt&uuml;rk/T&uuml;rkei, &sect;&nbsp;49). Vorbehaltlich des Art. 10 Abs. 2 EMRK gelte diese Freiheit nicht nur f&uuml;r g&uuml;nstig aufgenommene oder als unsch&auml;dlich oder unwichtig angesehene &bdquo;Informationen&ldquo; oder &bdquo;Ideen&ldquo;, sondern &ndash; im Einklang mit den Erfordernissen von Pluralismus, Toleranz und Aufgeschlossenheit, ohne die es keine &bdquo;demokratische Gesellschaft&ldquo; gebe &ndash; auch f&uuml;r solche, die verletzen, schockieren oder beunruhigen (EGMR, 5493/72, 7.12.1976, Handyside/Vereinigtes K&ouml;nigreich, &sect;&nbsp;49; vgl. auch EGMR, 28470/12, 5.4.2022, NIT S.R.L./Republik Moldau, &sect;&nbsp;177 und die dort angef&uuml;hrte Rechtsprechung).</p>
<p>Wie diese Idee der Meinungsfreiheit mit der Sanktion der &Auml;u&szlig;erungen Jacques Bauds vereinbar sein soll, erschlie&szlig;t sich deshalb auch und gerade dann nicht, wenn man dessen Meinungen mit sehr guten Gr&uuml;nden f&uuml;r irrig und irritierend ansieht.</p>
<h2>Zur Unverh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;igkeit der Sanktionen</h2>
<p>Auch wenn sich die Sanktionen damit schon aus sich heraus als unzul&auml;ssiger Eingriff in die Meinungsfreiheit erweisen, lohnt ein erg&auml;nzender Blick auf die Frage nach ihrer (Un-)Verh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;igkeit.</p>
<p>Nach Art.&nbsp;2 Abs. 1 VO 2024/2642 werden &bdquo;s&auml;mtliche Gelder und wirtschaftlichen Ressourcen, die im Eigentum oder Besitz, der in Anhang I aufgef&uuml;hrten nat&uuml;rlichen [&hellip;] Personen [&hellip;] sind oder von diesen gehalten oder kontrolliert werden [&hellip;] eingefroren&ldquo;. Nach Art.&nbsp;2 Abs.&nbsp;2 VO 2024/2642 d&uuml;rfen den sanktionierten Personen &bdquo;weder unmittelbar noch mittelbar Gelder oder wirtschaftliche Ressourcen zur Verf&uuml;gung gestellt werden oder zugutekommen.&ldquo; Ausnahmen sind nach Art.&nbsp;3 VO 2024/2642 nur insoweit m&ouml;glich, als es um die Befriedigung der Grundbed&uuml;rfnisse der sanktionierten Personen und ihrer Familienangeh&ouml;rigen und um die Finanzierung ihrer Rechtsverteidigung geht. Wie der insoweit vergleichbare Fall des Berliner Journalisten <a href="https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/article/hueseyin-dogru-eu-sanktionen-pressefreiheit-ausgehebelt-10033662" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">H&uuml;seyin Do&#287;ru</a> zeigt, wird darunter zumindest von den deutschen Beh&ouml;rden lediglich eine finanzielle Ausstattung auf Existenzminimumsniveau verstanden. Nach Art.&nbsp;1 Abs.&nbsp;1 GASP 2024/2643 sind die Mitgliedstaaten zudem verpflichtet, &bdquo;zu verhindern, dass im Anhang aufgef&uuml;hrte nat&uuml;rliche Personen in ihr Hoheitsgebiet einreisen oder durch ihr Hoheitsgebiet durchreisen&ldquo;.</p>
<p>In ihrer H&auml;rte, ihrer Umf&auml;nglichkeit und in ihrer prozessualen &Uuml;berfallsartigkeit bewegen sich diese Ma&szlig;nahmen klar au&szlig;erhalb jeder Verh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;igkeit. Ihre restriktive Macht sollte nach der urspr&uuml;nglichen Intention des Sanktionsregimes der Macht der zu sanktionierenden Machtpolitiker und Oligarchen entsprechen. Im Fall Baud richten sich diese Instrumente gegen einen schweizerischen Pension&auml;r. Verm&ouml;gensentzug, Bereitstellungsverbot, Ein- und Ausreiseverbot, faktisches Berufsverbot sowie monatliche Existenzpauschalen sind scharfe fundamentale Eingriffe. Dass die Betroffenen demgegen&uuml;ber auf einen erst nachtr&auml;glich zu erlangenden, m&uuml;hsamen und zeitraubenden Rechtsschutz verwiesen sind, macht die Lage f&uuml;r sie besonders problematisch. Dass all dies eine rechtlich akzeptable, verh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;ige unionale Reaktion auf unliebsame Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen sein soll, l&auml;sst sich mit gutem Gewissen nicht vertreten.</p>
<h2>Dumme Sanktionen und die Krise der Meinungsfreiheit</h2>
<p>Die Union rechtfertigt ihre Sanktionen gegen Baud und andere Privatpersonen unter Hinweis auf den Krieg, die Bedrohung durch hybride Operationen und das &ouml;ffentliche Interesse an einem widerstandsf&auml;higen Informationsraum. Das sind ernstzunehmende Anliegen. Aber sie rechtfertigen keine Praxis, die die rechtsstaatliche Architektur der Union selbst untergr&auml;bt. Die EU verletzt mit ihrem Vorgehen nicht nur die Grundrechte der sanktionierten Personen. Sie besch&auml;digt zugleich ihr eigenes Ansehen als Rechts- und Wertegemeinschaft. Das wird dem von prorussischer, Trumpscher und rechtspopulistischer Seite gepflegten antieurop&auml;ischen Narrativ weiteren Auftrieb geben. Die rechtswidrigen, hysterisch anmutenden und dummen Sanktionen sind damit Ausdruck einer weiter ausgreifenden Krise der Meinungsfreiheit. Es steht zu hoffen, dass die Unionsgerichtsbarkeit dieser Fehlentwicklung einen hinreichend m&auml;chtigen Riegel vorschieben wird.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/sanktionen-baud-meinungsfreiheit/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Die EU-Sanktionen gegen Jacques Baud und die Krise der Meinungsfreiheit</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-12T08:24:54+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Bernhard Wegener</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-12T08:24:54+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="europa"/>

	<category term="mpi-csl-beitrag"/>

	<category term="rechtsstaatlichkeit"/>

	<category term="russian war against ukraine"/>

	<category term="sanktionen"/>

	<category term="schweiz"/>

	<category term="verhältnismäßigkeit"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-12:/290144</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/53-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Zurück in die Zukunft! „Abschaffung des Heizungsgesetzes“ vs. Transformationsverantwortung</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von MERLE RICKERT Mit dem Geb&auml;udeenergiemodernisierungsgesetz droht der Gesetzgeber, sich seiner Tra...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von MERLE RICKERT Mit dem Geb&auml;udeenergiemodernisierungsgesetz droht der Gesetzgeber, sich seiner Transformationsverantwortung zu entziehen und die Entscheidung &uuml;ber die Einhaltung der deutschen und europ&auml;ischen Klimaziele aus der Hand zu geben. Damit opfert er die intertemporale Freiheitssicherung der kurzfristigen Auswahlm&ouml;glichkeit und schadet letztlich der Freiheit. Die Bundesregierung will mit dem im Entwurf vorliegenden Gesetz das &bdquo;Habeck&rsquo;sche...</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-12T06:14:25+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gastautorin</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-12T06:14:25+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="gebäudeenergiegesetz"/>

	<category term="gebäudemodernisierungsgesetz"/>

	<category term="klimawandel"/>

	<category term="recht aktuell"/>

	<category term="recht europäisch"/>

	<category term="recht politisch"/>

	<category term="richtlinienumsetzung"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-11:/290100</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/freedom-of-speech-at-the-fifa-world-cup-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Freedom of Speech at the FIFA World Cup 2026</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On 11 June 2026, the FIFA World Cup hosted by Canada, Mexico and the USA will be launched by the ope...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On 11 June 2026, the FIFA World Cup hosted by Canada, Mexico and the USA will be launched by the opening match between Mexico and South Africa in the <em>Estadio Azteca </em>of Mexico City. It is the most important sports event worldwide, reuniting for the first time 48 national teams and their supporters for more than five weeks. Attracting a lot of media attention, it is an ideal opportunity to bring up political and social issues. Past editions have regularly given rise to public controversies. One might remember the <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/to-speak-or-not-to-speak/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">debate about the rainbow armband in Qatar</a> in support of the LGBTI+ community at the 2022 World Cup.</p>
<p>Considering the current international context, in particular ongoing tensions and armed conflicts, it is likely that FIFA and the three host countries will also face certain incidents during this year&rsquo;s tournament. In principle, the international sports movement, including FIFA, aims to be ideologically, politically, and religiously neutral, which can provoke tensions with players&rsquo; and fans&rsquo; legitimate activism.</p>
<p>This article argues, first of all, that a certain type of expression, in particular hate speech, is not compatible with the spirit of football and must be banned from the stadiums. Hate speech is, however, not defined universally, which creates a grey zone where vivid discussion might arise on whether a certain speech or gesture should be authorized or banned. In response, it will be demonstrated, secondly, that various aspects and circumstances of a concrete situation would have to be taken into consideration, but that recent case law of the <a href="https://www.tas-cas.org/en/general-information/the-court" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Court of Arbitration for Sport (&ldquo;CAS&rdquo;)</a> and the <a href="https://www.echr.coe.int/european-convention-on-human-rights" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Court of Human Rights (&ldquo;ECtHR&rdquo;)</a> help finding the appropriate solutions between, on the one hand, the legitimate expression of players and fans and, on the other, the protection of individuals or groups against offending or defamatory speech. Thirdly, the cases that will be referred to indicate that, as a general rule, FIFA and UEFA have struck an appropriate balance in that exercise.</p>
<p>It is relevant to refer to the ECtHR, even for a tournament taking place in Canada, Mexico and the USA, because potential sanctions imposed by FIFA on players and national football federations can be challenged before CAS, followed by a possible appeal to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, whose judgments might end up before the ECtHR (see, for a recent sports arbitration case that took that avenue, <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-244348%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Semenya v. Switzerland</em></a>).</p>
<h2>Hate speech: not so easy to define</h2>
<p>Freedom of expression (<a href="https://www.echr.coe.int/european-convention-on-human-rights" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 10 ECHR</a>) is not an absolute human right and can be restricted. There is a common understanding that hate speech constitutes the red line that shall not be overstepped. However, no universally recognized definition of hate speech exists. We can refer, for the purpose of the present analysis, to the definition included in the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-commission-against-racism-and-intolerance/recommendation-no.15" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Policy Recommendation n&deg; 15</a> adopted by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), where hate speech is understood:</p>
<p>&ldquo;as the advocacy, promotion or incitement, in any form, of the denigration, hatred or vilification of a person or group of persons, as well as any harassment, insult, negative stereotyping, stigmatization or threat in respect of such a person or group of persons and the justification of all the preceding types of expression, on the ground of &lsquo;race&rsquo;, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, age, disability, language, religion or belief, sex, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation and other personal characteristics or status.&rdquo;</p>
<p>There have been instances in sports where players or fans abused their position to express hate against a certain group of people. They have been sanctioned for their behaviour either by domestic courts or by FIFA/UEFA.</p>
<p><em>Players</em></p>
<p>The leading case in football is <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-189769%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Simunic v. Croatia</em></a>, decided by the ECtHR in 2019. Josip &Scaron;imuni&#263; is a former international football player from Croatia, who was sanctioned for using an official greeting of the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Usta&scaron;e movement</a>, the totalitarian fascist regime of the Independent State of Croatia. He was convicted by the Croatian authorities of a minor criminal offence for addressing messages to spectators at a football match, the content of which expressed or incited hatred on the basis of race, nationality, and faith. After having exhausted local remedies, he brought his criminal convictions before the ECtHR, claiming that his right to freedom of expression had been violated. The Court declared the applicant&rsquo;s complaint inadmissible, finding that the Croatian authorities had struck a fair balance between his right to free speech, on the one hand, and society&rsquo;s interest in promoting tolerance and mutual respect at sports events as well as combating discrimination in sport on the other hand. The Court noted in particular that the applicant, as a famous footballer and a role-model for fans and players, should have been aware of the possible negative impact of provocative chanting on spectators&rsquo; behaviour.</p>
<p><em>Fans</em></p>
<p>Abusive, discriminatory and offensive speech is rare among professional football players, but more frequent among fans.</p>
<p>A positive development in the fight against racism has already been mentioned in an <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hate-speech-on-and-off-the-field/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">earlier post</a>: After Real Madrid player Vin&iacute;cius J&uacute;nior had become the victim of racist chants, <em>inter alia</em>, during a game in Valencia on 21 May 2023, three individuals were found guilty by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240610-fans-get-8-months-jail-for-racism-targeting-real-madrid-s-vinicius" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sentence of a trial court</a>&nbsp;of a &ldquo;crime against moral integrity&rdquo; with &ldquo;aggravating circumstance of discrimination based on racist motives&rdquo; and were imprisoned for eight months and banned from attending football matches for two years.</p>
<p>Another recent case, involving not racism but homophobia, confirms that the competent sports bodies &ndash; here the UEFA &ndash; make serious efforts to fulfil their commitments against intolerance and discrimination. The case has its origin in a UEFA Champions League Playoff match between Real Madrid and Manchester City at the Bernab&eacute;u Stadium in Madrid on 19 February 2025. A couple of days later, UEFA received external information according to which Real Madrid Fans chanted a homophobic chant targeting Manchester City manager Pep Guardiola (translation: &ldquo;<em>Guardiola, Guardiola, how thin you look, first it was the drugs and we will see you in Chueca today</em>!&rdquo;), insinuating that Guardiola is homosexual and visits Chueca, known as a gay area in Madrid. Real Madrid was sanctioned by UEFA based on Article 14 of its <a href="https://documents.uefa.com/v/u/Technical-Regulations/UEFA-Disciplinary-Regulations-Edition-2024-Online" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Disciplinary Regulations</a> with 30&nbsp;000 EUR and a partial closure of its stadium for one UEFA competition match. CAS confirmed the sanction in an award of 14 April 2026 (<a href="https://www.tas-cas.org/en/jurisprudence/recent-decisions" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CAS 2025/A/11261</a>). The expert witnesses assisting CAS added that the message was directed towards people with addictions and the LGBTI+ community, including stereotypes related to HIV/AIDS. Therefore, it had to be qualified as hate speech, as it was homophobic, discriminatory and stigmatising towards a certain group of people. For these reasons, CAS found the sanctions imposed by UEFA proportionate and confirmed them (CAS award, &sect; 55).</p>
<h2>The fine line between hate speech and legitimate activism</h2>
<p>As it has been observed above, there is no universally recognized definition of hate speech. As a result, sports governing bodies, such as FIFA or UEFA, must seek the right balance between, on the one hand, individual freedom of expression and, on the other, the protection of others, in particular vulnerable people, against discrimination and racism. This exercise might turn out difficult in practice, in particular considering the fact that it is exactly speech capable of contributing to a political debate or concerning a matter of public interest that is considered particularly valuable in a democratic society and benefits, as a result, from a special status under the ECHR (e.g. <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-154265%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Morice v. France</em> [GC]</a>, &sect; 125, and cases referred to).</p>
<p>The strong reactions to Lamine Yamal, FC Barcelona&rsquo;s young prodigy, holding and waving a flag of the State of Palestine when celebrating the &ldquo;<em>La Liga</em>&rdquo; title on 11<sup>th</sup> May 2026, illustrate this dilemma: <a href="https://www.arabnews.com/node/2643597/sport" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Israeli leaders and ministers</a> qualified the behaviour as hate speech and urged the Spanish Football Federation to sanction the player. On the other hand, <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/pedro-sanchez-lamine-yamal-football-palestine-israel-defense-minister/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Spanish Prime Minister Pedro S&aacute;nchez</a> stood behind Barca&rsquo;s young superstar, writing in X: <em>&ldquo;Those who consider waving the flag of a State to be &lsquo;inciting hatred&rsquo; have either lost their judgment or been blinded by their own ignominy. Lamine has only expressed the solidarity with Palestine felt by millions of Spaniards. Another reason to be proud of him.&rdquo;</em></p>
<p>The discussion around Yamal&rsquo;s gesture shows that the issue is sensitive and capable of polarizing society. The episode can nevertheless be contrasted with a case that had been decided by <a href="https://www.lawinsport.com/topics/news/item/the-court-of-arbitration-for-sport-cas-dismisses-the-appeal-filed-by-the-president-of-the-palestine-fa-against-the-federation-internationale-de-football-association-fifa" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CAS: the case of <em>Jibril Rajoub v. FIFA</em></a>, in which the President of the Palestine Football Association was fined a sum of 20 000 CHF and was banned from attending matches for 12 months for inciting a blatant protest during a match of the Israeli national team in Jerusalem. Rajoub publicly called for members of the Argentina national team to boycott a friendly match against Israel, which was set to be played in Israel. Furthermore, as pointed out by the CAS, Rajoub intentionally targeted the football icon Lionel Messi in the following words:</p>
<blockquote><p>&ldquo;&hellip;we will launch, as of today, a campaign targeting the Argentinian (Football) Federation, and in particular targeting (Lionel) Messi, who has tens of millions of fans in Arab and Islamic countries&hellip;(For his fans) he used to be a symbol and big deal. We are going to target Messi, and we are going to ask everybody to burn their Messi t-shirts and pictures, and to wash their hands of him&hellip;&rdquo; <a href="https://www.lawinsport.com/topics/news/item/the-court-of-arbitration-for-sport-cas-dismisses-the-appeal-filed-by-the-president-of-the-palestine-fa-against-the-federation-internationale-de-football-association-fifa" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">(CAS award</a>, &sect; 5)</p></blockquote>
<p>CAS held that the statement could indeed be qualified as inciting hatred, as Mr. Rajoub had called upon &ldquo;everyone&rdquo;, and the Arabic and Islamic world in particular, to undertake a violent act (burning t-shirts and pictures), specifically targeting one well-known individual (L. Messi). Using mass media to convey his message and considering his official position, Mr. Rajoub&rsquo;s statements had of course a much higher impact than coming from an anonymous citizen or fan.</p>
<p>The ECtHR has not dealt with a Lamine Yamal type of situation, but some parallels and conclusions might be drawn with and from the case of <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-203213%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Baldassi and Others v. France</em></a>, where it held that the boycott against products from Israel was primarily a means of expressing a protest and, as a result, covered in principle by Article&nbsp;10 ECHR. Even though the position of Lamine Yamal, as a famous football player and, as such, a role-model for millions, is not comparable with the applicants in that case, who were members of a local collective supporting the Palestinian cause by calling for a boycott of products from Israel, the Court&rsquo;s key message remains relevant for the present discussion, namely that it might be legitimate, under Article 10 ECHR, to express solidarity with a protest conducted by peaceful means of expression or gesture.</p>
<p>This does, however, not mean that the competent dispute settlement bodies, including the ECtHR, would and should endorse any behaviour of players or fans based on expression not entailing hate speech. In case a Lamine Yamal type of situation (a player or fan wearing a Palestine flag or t-shirt) occurs during the 2026 FIFA World Cup, various aspects would have to be taken into consideration, such as the author of the message (famous footballer as a role model, or anonymous fan?), the content and form of the message (message of solidarity or political/religious content?), the place and time where it occurs (outside or inside the stadium, or even as part of a player&rsquo;s celebration after scoring a goal or on the winner&rsquo;s podium ?), as well as the nature and severity of the sanction (match suspension of a player for the ongoing tournament or simply a pecuniary fine?).</p>
<p>In pondering these aspects, the football governing bodies enjoy, as do states and their courts, a certain margin of appreciation.</p>
<h2>Concluding remarks</h2>
<p>All in all, it can be concluded that, on the one hand, hate speech and any other form of expression that is capable of provoking violence are, <em>per se,</em> not compatible with the spirit of football and must be banned from stadiums. Peaceful means of expression, on the other hand, should be allowed as much as possible, in particular if they contribute to a political debate or a debate on matters of public interest. Hansi Flick, the German coach of Barcelona, <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/barcelona-boss-hansi-flick-reacts-after-lamine-yamal-waves-palestinian-flag-at-la-liga-victory-parade-13543243#:~:text=Coach%20Hansi%20Flick%2C%20when%20asked,He%20is%20old%20enough." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">commenting on Yamal&rsquo;s act</a>, who had turned 18 last July, brought it probably rightly to the point:</p>
<p>&ldquo;This, I don&rsquo;t normally like.&nbsp;I spoke with him.&nbsp;I said if he wants this, it is his decision.&nbsp;He is old enough.&rdquo;</p>
<p>In other words, famous professional football players should have the autonomy and freedom to decide whether they would like to speak up, or remain silent, on causes that are important for them, of course within the general limits applicable to freedom of expression and relevant FIFA rules.</p>
<p>In the past, FIFA and UEFA have rather successfully tried to accommodate conflicting interests &ndash; it will have to be seen whether this will also be the case during the 2026 World Cup, of which an important part will take place in the USA, traditionally considered as one of the cradles of free speech.</p>
<p><em>The author expresses his personal views.</em></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/freedom-of-speech-at-the-fifa-world-cup-2026/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Freedom of Speech at the FIFA World Cup 2026</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-11T11:12:40+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Daniel Rietiker</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-11T11:12:40+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="cas"/>

	<category term="ecthr"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="fifa"/>

	<category term="freedom of speech"/>

	<category term="sports law"/>

	<category term="uefa"/>

	<category term="world cup"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-11:/290077</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/a-hierarchy-of-harms/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">A Hierarchy of Harms</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The specific result in Valeurs de l&rsquo;Union (C-769/22) is correct. An obviously discriminatory law whi...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The specific result in <em>Valeurs de l&rsquo;Union</em> (C-769/22) is correct. An obviously discriminatory law which de facto equates LGBTI+ persons with pedophilia violates Union law. However, the conceptual framework the Court builds regarding Article 2 TEU to reach that result is troubling. By limiting Article 2 TEU to &ldquo;manifest and particularly serious&rdquo; breaches of the values of human dignity, equality, and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities (see <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/affair?publishedId=C-769%2F22&amp;searchTerm=C-769%2F22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, para. 551), the Court does not merely constrain the provision&rsquo;s reach but encodes a majoritarian, visibility-based standard of human rights that departs from the focus on individual dignity.</p>
<h2>A Threshold of Visibility</h2>
<p>A threshold of manifestness &ndash; <em>offenkundig</em> in the German version &ndash; is, structurally, a threshold of visibility. It asks not how severe a violation is, but whether it is overt, easy to notice and evident to everyone (see for the literal interpretation <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/manifest_v?tl=true" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a> and <a href="https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/offenkundig" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). Thus, manifestness is never a property of the violation in itself but forms a relation between the violation and its observers. This observer, whom the threshold tacitly invokes, has a culturally dominant perception and recognizes as &ldquo;evident&rdquo; and &ldquo;easy to notice&rdquo; only what the prevailing consensus has already conditioned them to see. What falls outside the consensus is, by the same standard, not manifest. It fails the threshold not because it is less severe, but because it is less obvious to the majoritarian gaze. The values at stake, human dignity, equality, and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities, are anchored, in their very rationale, in the dignity of the individual. Their rationale is a corrective to collective will, insisting that certain treatment is impermissible regardless of whether a majority finds it acceptable or even notices it at all. The Court&rsquo;s threshold detaches these values from that anchor of individual dignity and ties them instead to the perception of the majority, thereby inverting the very logic of human dignity, equality, and the respect for human rights. This shift in theoretical foundations has practical consequences.</p>
<p>In the present case, the Hungarian legislator was &ldquo;helpful enough&rdquo; to announce the discrimination against LGBTI+ persons with legislative fanfare. But discrimination that could breach values such as equality is not always loud and open &ndash; whether it is visible or not depends on the perspective taken. Structural discrimination, for example, is by definition normalized in institutional practices and social norms, often lacking conscious intention on the part of those who perpetuate it. Yet the harm imposed on those who are affected is not lesser for being woven into the fabric of &ldquo;normality&rdquo;. Discrimination also operates at the intersection of several grounds at once, where the manifest and particular serious discrimination &ndash; experienced by those who stand at these crossroads, Black women being the original subjects in point &ndash; is often invisible to a majoritarian perception (see <a href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>).</p>
<p>Moreover, there are cases where discrimination is actively hidden behind the very language of equality and the laws that ought to oppose it (Rosalind Dixon very convincingly analysed how exclusionary agendas are being pushed by the abusive use of feminist language, see <a href="https://bclawreview.bc.edu/articles/10.70167/TUGR8760" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). A threshold that asks whether a violation is manifest reproduces the disadvantages already built into the social baseline.</p>
<h2>History&rsquo;s Authority</h2>
<p>These considerations do not just concern future cases but are already acute in the present judgment pertaining to the historical justification for Article 2 TEU&rsquo;s enforceability.</p>
<p>In justifying the legally enforceable character of Article 2 TEU, the Court reaches for the authority of history, pointing to both the context of Article 2 TEU within the Treaty of Lisbon, and the supposed will of the Convention on the Future of Europe. While the travaux cited by the Court address Article 2 TEU explicitly only in the context of Article 7 TEU proceedings (see <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/committees/empl/20030219/conv528en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, page 11), the far more acute question this historicization raises is: if Article 2 TEU has been judicially enforceable since 2009, why did earlier measures escape it? What about the pushbacks of refugees (see, for example, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/migrant-instrumentalisation-facts-and-fictions/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>), near-total abortion bans (see <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/towards-gilead/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a> and <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/dobbs-in-the-eu/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>) or other anti-LGBTI+ measures (see <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/how-hungarys-pride-ban-tests-the-eus-commitment-to-democracy/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>)?</p>
<p>Taken in isolation, one might respond: better late than never. But the threshold forecloses this response. Read together, the historicization and the &ldquo;manifest and particularly serious&rdquo; threshold imply something else. Earlier violations were not caught because Article 2 TEU was unavailable, but because these violations did not harm &ldquo;the identity of the Union as a common legal order of a society in which pluralism prevails&rdquo; (see <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/affair?publishedId=C-769%2F22&amp;searchTerm=C-769%2F22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, para. 551) in a manifest and particularly serious manner. Even if unintentionally, the retroactive rationalization of past silences casts a poor light on future cases and confirms the suspicion that Article 2 TEU protection tracks what is already politically legible, not what individual dignity demands.</p>
<h2>Collectivist Objections</h2>
<p>One might object that this critique misunderstands the nature of values and that values, unlike rights, are not held by individuals but by communities. They describe shared foundations of a society rather than the entitlements of its members. On this view, a majoritarian threshold seems like the logical consequence. If Article 2 TEU protects the conditions of collective coexistence rather than the individual as such, then tying its breach to what the community recognizes as a manifest violation is entirely appropriate.</p>
<p>Two things may be said in response. First, it is already far from clear that values, enforced through a court, are an appropriate instrument for protecting the pluralist society Article 2 TEU invokes in the first place. A pluralist society is one whose terms of coexistence remain open to contestation. It is constituted precisely by the ongoing, unfinished argument over what binds it together. Values operate mostly in the opposite direction. Indeterminate in content yet carrying an absolute claim to validity, they make a poor basis both for demanding integration into them and for opening up a healthy discourse. To invoke values in political discourse rather functions as a shortcut assertion of certain &ldquo;good&rdquo;, foundational assumptions whose contestation, in itself, is taken to disqualify the contester (for elaboration on values in political debate, see <a href="https://www.merkur-zeitschrift.de/2022/11/30/unsere-werte/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>).</p>
<p>Rightfully, mostly left-wing critics have called out <em>Leitkultur</em>-fantasies for demanding allegiance to a diffuse social order that was never democratically negotiated. Recourse to values ultimately operates in a similar way. One neither simply refutes a culture nor a value; one either shares it or is revealed, by one&rsquo;s failure to share it, to stand outside the community it constitutes. In the case of the EU, this raises particular problems, especially given that neither the Court nor the community of Member States actually possesses the means to expel a non-compliant Member State. Unable to exclude, the Court can only declare (and financially sanction), thereby entrenching the supposed absoluteness on which the value recourse runs rather than openly examining it.</p>
<p>Second, even if one accepts that values serve and protect the community as such, their formulation in Article 2 TEU bears on individual rights that do not: human dignity (Article 1 of the EU Charter), other human rights of the EU Charter and equality provisions. Under the Court&rsquo;s framework, manifest and particularly serious violations of these individual rights will also count as breaches of the Union&rsquo;s collective values, while quieter and structural violations of the very same rights, or simply such the collective does not deem manifest and serious enough, will not. The threshold thereby sorts individual rights-violations into two tiers, creating a hierarchy of harms. Such a hierarchy is in itself harmful, announcing with the authority of the Union&rsquo;s highest court that some violations of human dignity, human rights and equality are worse than others.</p>
<p>Notably, this is the very problem AG &#262;apeta&rsquo;s proposal would have avoided. If Article 2 TEU is indeed meant to protect values in their collective dimension, then her value-negation approach is the more coherent threshold (see <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document/C/2022/C-0769-22-00000000RD-01-P-01/CONCL/300973-EN-1-html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, paras. 237-247). Rather than asking whether a breach is manifest and particularly serious, it asks whether a measure is directed against the value itself, whether it seeks to negate the value rather than merely falling short of it. This keeps the inquiry where a collectivist reading would locate it &ndash; on the measure&rsquo;s relationship to the shared value, instead of grading individual harms by their visibility.</p>
<h2>To Go from Here</h2>
<p>None of this is to deny the predicament the EU faces. With the political route of Article 7 TEU effectively blocked, the search for alternative routes is understandable &ndash; and the temptation to find them in the judicial enforcement of Article 2 TEU is big. And yet, for all the concerns set out above, the question must be asked whether this is the right path toward an open, integrated Europe in which the dignity of the individual, rather than the perception of the majority, remains the point of departure. I don&rsquo;t have a definitive answer to this question, though it seems preferable if the Court, at least in matters of human dignity, equality, and respect for human rights &ndash; including the rights of persons belonging to minorities &ndash; confined itself to a more differentiated fundamental rights jurisprudence, attentive also to quieter forms of harm, and one in which the individual, not the majority, stands at the center.</p>
<p>What I can say with certainty is that a jurisprudence that protects values of human dignity, equality and human rights only where their breach is already manifest does not build such a Europe. Therefore, should the enforcement of Article 2 TEU consolidate in future case law, as seems likely, the Court should reconsider its current threshold, prone to majoritarian bias.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/a-hierarchy-of-harms/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">A Hierarchy of Harms</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-11T07:17:09+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Meret Plucis</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-11T07:17:09+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="article 2 teu"/>

	<category term="c-769/22"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu"/>

	<category term="manifestness"/>

	<category term="valeurs de l’union"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-11:/290078</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/constitutional-reset-as-the-only-choice/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Constitutional Reset As the Only Choice</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>One of the most pressing challenges for the new Hungarian authorities will be the future of the Cons...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>One of the most pressing challenges for the new Hungarian authorities will be the future of the Constitutional Court, perceived as a <a href="https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/gj-2025-0028/html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">captured institution</a>. The new authorities may be tempted to use their constitutional majority to adopt amendments aimed at a complete overhaul of the Constitutional Court, although such radical actions risk being seen as a violation of judicial independence, one of the core elements of the European standards of the Rule of Law. However, in this post I will argue that sometimes radical steps in response to captured apex courts can be both justified and necessary, provided that they form part of a broader reform genuinely aimed at strengthening the institution&rsquo;s independence, rather than simply re-capturing it.</p>
<h2>European Standards and Protection of Judicial Irremovability</h2>
<p>Judicial irremovability, as a key safeguard of judicial independence, is a crucial component of the European Rule of Law standards. In light of the ECtHR case law, removal of a judge without providing them with access to a court usually constitutes a <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-231998" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">violation of Article 6</a> of the Convention. Arbitrary dismissal, depending on the context of the case, may also breach other provisions of the Convention, such as <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-222138" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 8</a> or <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-163113" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10</a>.</p>
<p>The Venice Commission, too, has been very sceptical of removing judges <em>ex lege</em>, even as part of a constitutional reform. In the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2024-035-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2024 Opinion</a> on Poland, it criticised <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ref-2024-036-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the draft constitutional amendment</a> which envisaged the removal of current judges of the Polish Constitutional Tribunal. It held that there was no pressing need to take such a step, given that the Sejm of the current term could appoint a substantive number of judges, leading to a more pluralistic composition of the Court. Moreover, the Venice Commission assessed that such a radical action could be perceived as an impermissible <em>ad personam </em>measure and could constitute a dangerous precedent that could be abused in the future.</p>
<h2>The Removal of Judges and Judicial Independence</h2>
<p>In my view, absolutisation of judicial irremovability and extending it even to the protection of judges of captured constitutional courts against measures taken as part of formally lawful constitutional reforms does not seem a justified approach.</p>
<p>As the Polish experiences have shown, respecting the terms of a court which is unable to carry out its duties independently and impartially serves neither the protection of the rule of law, nor strengthening the public trust in the system of constitutional review.</p>
<p>The current Constitutional Tribunal in Poland is not an independent protector of the Constitution &ndash; it is used by the former ruling party (PiS) as a weapon to block almost every action of the coalition aimed at restoring the rule of law. Its judgments are not based on any convincing legal reasoning but have purely instrumental character &ndash; as <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003148944-13/whatever-works-wojciech-brzozowski" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wojciech Brzozowski</a> aptly put it, the Tribunal&rsquo;s interpretative approach &ldquo;is best described as the cherry-picking model, with the only guiding principle being to use whatever works, whatever promises to help achieve the aims pursued&rdquo;. For example, when the coalition <a href="https://orka.sejm.gov.pl/proc10.nsf/ustawy/219_u.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">amended</a> the law on the National Council of the Judiciary, the Tribunal declared the reform <a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/ustawa-o-zmianie-ustawy-o-krajowej-radzie-sadownictwa-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unconstitutional</a>. But when the coalition attempted to elect members of the NCJ under the existing law, the Tribunal issued an <a href="https://www.prawo.pl/prawnicy-sady/tk-wydal-zabezpieczenie-w-sprawie-wyboru-sedziow-czlonkow-krs,1544577.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">interim measure</a> requesting that the Sejm halt the procedure. Similarly, when the coalition adopted a <a href="https://orka.sejm.gov.pl/proc10.nsf/ustawy/253_u.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">new law</a> on the Constitutional Tribunal, the Tribunal declared it <a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/ustawa-o-trybunale-konstytucyjnym-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unconstitutional</a>. But when the coalition elected judges based on the existing law, it ruled that the President is <a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/zasady-i-tryb-wyboru-sedziego-trybunalu-konstytucyjnego-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">not obliged to swear in judges</a>. Parliamentary committees investigating abuses during PiS rule were likewise declared unconstitutional (<a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/12896-zakres-dzialania-sejmowej-komisji-sledczej" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a> and <a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/uchwala-w-sprawie-powolania-komisji-sledczej-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>), and the Act on the Tribunal of State was declared partly unconstitutional as well (<a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/12586-procedura-pociagniecia-do-odpowiedzialnosci-konstytucyjnej-prezesa-nbp" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, <a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/12862-wstepny-wniosek-o-pociagniecie-prezesa-narodowego-banku-polskiego-do-odpowiedzialnosci-przed-trybunalem-stanu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, and <a href="https://trybunal.gov.pl/en/hearings/judgments/art/pociagniecie-czlonka-krajowej-rady-radiofonii-i-telewizji-do-odpowiedzialnosci-przed-trybunalem-stanu-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>), to block proceedings against officials appointed by PiS.</p>
<p>At the same time, the captured Constitutional Tribunal can no longer function as a check against the Polish government. The latter <a href="https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WMP20240001068/O/M20241068.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">perceives it</a> as a completely compromised institution and refuses to implement its judgments. But this often results in a situation where there is no organ which could effectively review the legality of the government&rsquo;s actions.</p>
<p>One cannot rule out a similar scenario unfolding in Hungary. The Constitutional Court may seek to block various efforts by a new ruling coalition to restore the system after Fidesz&rsquo;s rule. In response, the Hungarian government could discredit unfavourable judgments by presenting them as the work of Orb&aacute;n loyalists and <em>de facto</em> override them by adopting new constitutional amendments, following in the <a href="https://helsinki.hu/wp-content/uploads/Constitutional-Court-vs-Fourth-Amendment.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">footsteps of FIDESZ</a> from the first years of their rule. Should this occur, the Constitutional Court would be marginalised and unable to function as an effective check on executive power. As a result, instead of &ldquo;<a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2025-002-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">re-building public confidence</a>&rdquo; in the Constitutional Court, this trust could be further diminished.</p>
<h2>Removal as Part of a Legitimate Constitutional Reform</h2>
<p>I certainly agree that the ruling authorities cannot be given a <em>carte blanche</em> to purge a constitutional court and fill it with their own loyalists. Such a measure would not restore the Rule of Law but would amount merely to yet another instance of court capturing. However, the literature has recognised (<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/german-law-journal/article/good-courtpacking-the-paradoxes-of-constitutional-repair-in-contexts-of-democratic-decay/94D64D67ABFC3329C54AB9FA3EC28E25" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/21/1/80/7111298#407036473" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>) that there may be exceptional situations in which court-packing could be legitimate. I believe that a complete overhaul of the constitutional court&rsquo;s composition may be warranted if, rather than constituting an end in itself, it forms a part of a broader, objectively justified reform aimed at strengthening the independence and impartiality of the court.</p>
<p>The context of reform and the intentions of authorities are crucial for compliance with Article 6 of the ECHR. For instance, in <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-231998" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Turkish cases</a> concerning <em>ex lege </em>removal of judges of the top courts, the ECtHR took into account that the scale and character of judicial reforms implemented by the authorities were not such as to justify the dismissal of judges without providing them with access to court. However, in the case of <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-229606" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Gyulumyan and others v. Armenia</em></a>, the ECtHR reached a different conclusion.</p>
<p>The said case concerned the removal of Constitutional Court judges on the basis of a constitutional amendment adopted in the context of deep political changes following the so-called Armenian Revolution of 2018. The amendment changed the procedure for appointing judges of the Constitutional Court and introduced fixed terms for them. Since the new terms applied even to judges appointed before the reform took effect, several judges were removed from office. The removed judges filed applications to the ECtHR, but the Court declared them inadmissible.</p>
<p>There are certainly differences between the Armenian and the Polish or Hungarian context. The replacement of life tenure with fixed terms would be objectively very difficult to implement without shortening the terms of incumbent judges, and so it was easier to prove that the form was justified. In Poland and Hungary, judges already have fixed terms (though, in Hungary&rsquo;s case, unusually long), so one can always argue that, rather than removing them, authorities could wait for their terms to expire.</p>
<p>However, the ECtHR&rsquo;s reasoning in <em>Gyulumyan and Others </em>contains certain passages which could be interpreted more broadly, as a recognition that legitimate constitutional reforms may justify extraordinary measures, such as the removal of judges <em>ex lege</em>. The ECtHR paid attention to the specific role and function of constitutional courts, which make them different from ordinary courts. It also underlined that &ldquo;the power of a government to undertake reforms of the judiciary cannot be called into question, on condition that any reform of the judicial system should not result in undermining the independence of the judiciary and its governing bodies&rdquo;. In the ECtHR&rsquo;s opinion, the legislation at stake was not targeted against this group of judges &ndash; their removal was not arbitrary but part of a broader reform aimed at strengthening, not weakening, the independence of the Armenian Constitutional Court. Moreover, given the unique nature of constitutional amendments, ensuring the right of dismissed judges to judicial review would have been difficult.</p>
<p>On that basis, I argue that the removal of judges of the constitutional court via constitutional amendment would not violate Article 6 ECHR if it were part of a structural reform genuinely aimed at strengthening the court&rsquo;s independence and impartiality. The European institutions, including the Venice Commission, should acknowledge that domestic authorities may have a legitimate interest in reforming constitutional courts whose composition lacks necessary pluralism. As <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/one-sidedly-staffed-courts/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Gertrude L&uuml;bbe-Wolff</a> convincingly argued, constitutional courts that are one-sidedly staffed lack systemic impartiality, which is key for the proper exercise of their functions.</p>
<p>The reform of such courts would be justified, especially if it is necessary to address the constitutional shortcomings that led to the rule of law backsliding. According to the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2025-002-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Venice Commission</a>, one of the goals of the rule of law restoration process should be addressing &ldquo;the very flaws that allowed the regression to occur, in order to build better safeguards for the future.&rdquo;</p>
<h2>Constitutional Reset</h2>
<p>In Poland, the idea of adopting a constitutional amendment to reform the appointment procedure for Constitutional Tribunal judges and remove the current bench is referred to as a &ldquo;constitutional reset&rdquo;. Recently, an <a href="https://pro.rp.pl/panel-prawnikow/art44194771-panel-prawnikow-rzeczpospolitej-tylko-reset-uzdrowi-trybunal-konstytucyjny" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing number</a> of commentators have voiced their support for this approach. An interesting proposal in this regard was presented by Senator <a href="https://x.com/kmujazdowski/status/2053778111393620189?s=20" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Kazimierz Micha&#322; Ujazdowski</a>. His draft law envisages terminating the terms of the current judges of the Constitutional Tribunal and dispersing the competence to elect their successors among three organs: the Sejm, the Senate, and the President. Such a law would address one of the most serious flaws of the current Polish Constitution: that all judges of the Constitutional Tribunal are elected by the Sejm with just an absolute majority.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, in Poland, the chances for adopting such a reform are slim, and attempts to &ldquo;zero&rdquo; the Constitutional Tribunal through an ordinary parliamentary resolution would be unlawful and, instead of solving the crisis, could lead to <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/pandering-to-peoples-emotions-is-no-solution/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">further problems</a>. However, in Hungary, the idea of &ldquo;constitutional reset&rdquo; could be effectively implemented. Similarly to Poland, the current procedure for appointing judges to the Constitutional Court is flawed, as it allows the ruling majority to unilaterally elect all the judges. In addition, during the initial phase of FIDESZ rule, the parliament <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003355793-9/guarding-constitution-serving-politics-decline-hungarian-constitutional-court-zolt%C3%A1n-szente" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">changed the law,</a> increasing the number of the Constitutional Court&rsquo;s judges and limiting the opposition&rsquo;s influence on the process of their election. This resulted in a situation in which the Constitutional Court lacks the necessary pluralism.</p>
<p>Therefore, the goal of the new authorities should be to construe the procedure so as to make the Court more resilient to political capture. This could involve, for example, increasing the transparency of the process and ensuring the involvement of non-political bodies and civil society. It is also crucial to cooperate with the parliamentary opposition to ensure the reform&rsquo;s broader legitimacy. From an international perspective, consultations with the Venice Commission may be important. To lower the risk of losing a case at the ECtHR, the reform could include mechanisms to <a href="https://www.iconnectblog.com/hungarys-constitutional-boomerang-a-recommendation-for-the-commission/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">protect the rights of incumbent judges</a>, such as a proper transitional period or a guarantee of an adequate retirement salary upon removal.</p>
<p>The creation of a truly independent and effective Constitutional Court, trusted and respected by society and all political actors in Hungary, would undoubtedly be a very difficult task. The scenario considered here would require TISZA to reject the possibility of capturing or marginalising the Constitutional Court and to accept limitations on its virtually unlimited power, guaranteed by a two-thirds majority. It may turn out that, politically, the most convenient solution would be simply to do nothing with the Constitutional Court. After all, as already mentioned, any problematic ruling could easily be overridden, and the risk of condemnation by European institutions for adopting the radical measures considered here would be averted. But would this really be a triumph of the rule of law?</p>
<p><em>&nbsp;</em><em>&nbsp;</em></p>
<p><em>The work was supported by the National Science Centre, Poland, under the research project &ldquo;European Court of Human Rights towards violations of judicial independence in illiberal democracies&rdquo;, principal investigator: Marcin Szwed, grant number: 2023/51/D/HS5/01117, SONATA 19.</em></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/constitutional-reset-as-the-only-choice/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Constitutional Reset As the Only Choice</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-11T06:58:10+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Marcin Szwed</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-11T06:58:10+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="constitutional court"/>

	<category term="constitutional reset"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="fidesz"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="judiciary"/>

	<category term="on law and politics in the hungarian transition"/>

	<category term="orban"/>

	<category term="reform"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-10:/290040</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/remembering-gordon-wood-religion-and.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Remembering Gordon Wood: Religion and the Republic</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Arvind Kurian AbrahamGordon S. Wood, who
tragically passed away, was arguably one of the greatest hi...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><span>Arvind Kurian Abraham</span></p><p><span><span>Gordon S. Wood, who
tragically passed away, was arguably one of the greatest historians of the
early American republic of his generation. His death leaves an enormous void,
not merely in the academy, but in public life, at precisely the moment when
Americans most need the kind of careful, nuanced, evidence-driven historical
understanding that Wood devoted his life to providing. Nowhere is this loss
felt more acutely than in the debate over religion and the founding of the
American republic, a debate that continues to generate far more heat than light,
and one that Wood illuminated with characteristic brilliance.<p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>Two competing claims
dominate public debate about religion and the American founding. The first
holds that the United States was founded as a Christian republic, citing the
religious practices of early federal governments as evidence. The second
insists the founding was essentially secular, resting its case on the writings
of Jefferson and Madison. Gordon Wood&rsquo;s scholarship did not confirm comfortable
narratives. It complicated them.<p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>He noted that while some
Founding Fathers such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, John Jay, Roger Sherman,
and Elias Boudinot were devout Christians, several leading figures were not.
Shaped by Whig liberalism, the writings of John Locke, and the influential
Cato's Letters by John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, figures like Jefferson and
Madison viewed religious enthusiasm as a kind of madness, the conceit, in
Wood's own rendering, "of a warmed or overweening brain." Few were
outright Deists in the strict sense, that is, believers in a clockmaker God
indifferent to human affairs. Some were proto-Unitarians who denied miracles
and the divinity of Christ, and who described the Christian church, in the
words of South Carolina historian David Ramsay, as "the best temple of
reason." <p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>One of Wood's most
penetrating insights was his recognition of how completely the religious
landscape of America had shifted between the founding moment and the early
republic, in ways that the Framers had neither anticipated nor designed. The
old colonial churches were in decline, in their place rose newer, more dynamic
denominations. The Baptists grew from 94 congregations in 1760 to 858 by 1790,
becoming the single largest denomination in America. The Methodists, with no
presence at all in 1760, had established over seven hundred congregations by
1790. Their uneducated itinerant preachers, willing to preach on town greens,
racing fields, ferries, and in the churches of rival denominations. The
expansions of religiosity in American society was part of the phenomenon known
as the Second Great Awakening. <p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>Jefferson, the Founding
Father who had pushed furthest toward a secular conception of liberty,
exemplified the gap between founding expectations and social reality. He had
always maintained the outward forms of religious observance, attending church
and serving on his local vestry, owing not to faith but to his deep aversion to
personal controversy. Jefferson&rsquo;s Notes on the State of Virginia and the
preamble to the 1786 Virginia Bill for Religious Freedom made clear that a
citizen's civil rights were no more dependent on religious views than on
opinions about physics. Jefferson was a sharp critic of orthodox Christianity.
In fact, he believed that Trinitarian Christianity would die out and be
replaced by Unitarianism. <p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>Wood pointed out that after
being attacked in the 1800 presidential campaign as a "French
infidel" and "atheist," Jefferson became more deliberately
visible in his public religiosity, speaking favourably of religion in his first
inaugural address and attending church services held in the chamber of the
House of Representatives. The federal government even permitted the U.S. Marine
Corps Band to play religious music for the services. This was not a sign that
he had changed his beliefs. Rather, it was an acknowledgment of the social
reality of popular religion, which he could not ignore as president. Wood's
history poses a serious methodological challenge for &ldquo;history-based&rdquo; approaches
to constitutional interpretation. If post-ratification practices were products
of political expediency rather than reflections of constitutional principle,
can those practices legitimately serve as evidence of the Constitution&rsquo;s
original meaning or the founding generation's settled understanding of its
limits?<p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>Wood also argued that Jefferson
had fundamentally misread why he had won the Virginia Assessment fight. The
bill would never have passed, without the overwhelming support of dissenting
evangelical Presbyterians and Baptists who simply hated the Anglican
establishment and did not care what Jefferson's preamble said. "It was not
enlightened rationalism that drove these evangelicals," Wood wrote,
"but their growing realization that it was better to neutralize the state
in matters of religion than run the risk of one of their religious opponents gaining
control of the government." Wood's analysis carries a pointed warning for
scholars who treat the Virginia Assessment controversy and Jefferson and
Madison's writings as the authoritative blueprint for understanding what the
founding generation had in mind on questions of state and religion.<p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span>By 1811, even New
York's Chief Justice James Kent, who privately called Christianity a barbaric
superstition, felt compelled to rule that blasphemy against it was punishable
under common law, so powerful had the popular evangelical climate become,
according to Wood. The settlement that eventually emerged, voluntarist,
competitive, passionately evangelical, and distinctly Protestant in character,
was one that neither Jefferson nor Madison had designed and that few among the
founding generation had fully anticipated. In an era when the history of
religion and the founding is routinely employed for political ends, Gordon
Wood's guiding voice is one that will be dearly missed. <p></p></span></span></p><p><span><i>Arvind Kurian Abraham is an SJD Candidate at Harvard Law School. You can reach him by e-mail at aabraham@sjd.law.harvard.edu.</i></span></p>

<p><span><p><span>&nbsp;</span></p></span></p><br><p></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-10T13:30:00+00:00</updated>
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		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-10T13:30:00+00:00</updated>
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</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-10:/290021</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vereinsverbot/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Vereinnahmtes Vereinsgesetz</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Immer h&auml;ufiger tritt im Kampf gegen Rechtsextremismus ein Instrument aus dem Schattendasein hervor: ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Immer h&auml;ufiger tritt im Kampf gegen Rechtsextremismus ein Instrument aus dem Schattendasein hervor: das Vereinsverbot, ob zuletzt erfolgreich gegen die &bdquo;<a href="https://www.bverwg.de/pm/2026/30" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Artgemeinschaft</a>&ldquo; oder gescheitert gegen <a href="https://www.bverwg.de/pm/2025/99" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hammerskins</a> und <a href="https://www.bverwg.de/de/pm/2025/48" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Compact</a>. In einem Landtagswahljahr, in dem man bei <a href="https://www.mdr.de/nachrichten/sachsen-anhalt/landespolitik/landtagswahl-sonntagsfrage-umfrage-trend-104.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hohen AfD-Zustimmungswerten</a> auch Schl&uuml;ssel&uuml;bergaben an AfD-Innenminister keineswegs mehr ausschlie&szlig;en kann, gibt dies aber auch der Kehrseite der Vereinsverbote neue Aktualit&auml;t: Einem autorit&auml;r-populistischen Innenminister k&ouml;nnten Vereinsverbote als potentes Repressionswerkzeug gegen unliebsame Strukturen dienen. Denn sie kombinieren einen weiten Tatbestand mit freigiebigen Ermittlungsm&ouml;glichkeiten und weitreichenden Rechtsfolgen. Weit von den rechtsstaatlichen Vorkehrungen eines Parteiverbotsverfahrens entfernt, laufen im Vereinsverbot schlagkr&auml;ftige Aspekte von Straf- und Verfassungsschutzrecht zusammen &ndash; verpackt im Mantel eines einfachen Verwaltungsverfahrens.</p>
<h2>Auch Landesministerien d&uuml;rfen verbieten</h2>
<p>Das Vereinsverbot (Art. 9 Abs. 2 GG) ist nach dem <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2018/07/rs20180713_1bvr147412.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bundesverfassungsgericht</a> zusammen mit der Grundrechtsverwirkung (Art. 18 GG) und dem Parteiverbot (Art. 21 Abs. 2 GG) besonderer Ausdruck der wehrhaften Demokratie des Grundgesetzes. Demokratiegef&auml;hrdenden Strukturen soll der Staat fr&uuml;h das Handwerk legen k&ouml;nnen. Der Anwendungsbereich des Vereinsverbots beschr&auml;nkt sich nicht auf eingetragene Vereine, sondern erstreckt sich auf &bdquo;jede Vereinigung, zu der sich eine Mehrheit nat&uuml;rlicher oder juristischer Personen f&uuml;r l&auml;ngere Zeit zu einem gemeinsamen Zweck freiwillig zusammengeschlossen und einer organisierten Willensbildung unterworfen hat&ldquo; (&sect; 2 Abs. 1 Vereinsgesetz).</p>
<p>Die drei Verbotsgr&uuml;nde des &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Vereinsgesetz ergeben sich schon aus dem Grundgesetz (Art. 9 Abs. 2 GG). Dabei stellt erst die einfachgesetzliche Regelung klar, dass die Verbotserkl&auml;rung entgegen dem grundrechtlichen Wortlaut (&bdquo;sind verboten&ldquo;) konstitutiv wirkt. Zust&auml;ndig ist das Bundesinnenministerium immer dann, wenn sich die Organisation oder T&auml;tigkeit des Vereins oder Teilvereins &uuml;ber das Gebiet eines Landes hinaus erstreckt. Das Bundesinnenministerium hat bislang <a href="https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/sicherheit/extremismus/vereinsverbote/vereinsverbote-artikel.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">49 Vereinsverbote</a> erlassen.</p>
<p>Daneben kann aber auch das zust&auml;ndige Landesministerium, in der Regel das Innenministerium, Vereinsverbote erlassen. Dies passiert bereits regelm&auml;&szlig;ig (vgl. Baudewin, NVwZ 2021, 1021). Die Zust&auml;ndigkeit erstreckt sich auf Vereine, deren erkennbare Organisation und T&auml;tigkeit sich auf das Gebiet eines Landes beschr&auml;nkt (&sect; 3 Abs. 2 S. 1 Nr. 1 Vereinsgesetz), oder auf Teilvereine von bundesweit t&auml;tigen Vereinen, f&uuml;r deren Gesamtverbot das Bundesinnenministerium (BMI) zust&auml;ndig w&auml;re (&sect; 3 Abs. 2 S. 2 Vereinsgesetz). Im letzteren Fall muss das Landesministerium das Benehmen mit dem BMI herstellen, womit &ndash; anders als bei einem Einvernehmen &ndash; nur die Pflicht zur Anh&ouml;rung gemeint ist.</p>
<p>F&uuml;r eine <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/thuringen-projekt/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">autorit&auml;r-populistische Landesregierung</a> w&auml;re das Innenministerium einer der wichtigsten Posten: Der Innenminister verantwortet Polizei und Verfassungsschutz <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/mehr-sicherheit-fur-den-sicherheitsapparat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">mitsamt bedeutenden personellen Entscheidungen</a>. Er hat die Kommunalaufsicht inne und wacht &uuml;ber das Versammlungs- und Waffenrecht. Nicht zuletzt verantwortet er ausl&auml;nderrechtliche Angelegenheiten. Das Vereinsverbot erg&auml;nzt also ein ohnehin schon gro&szlig;es administratives Instrumentarium (zu dessen allgemeinen Missbrauchsspielr&auml;umen bereits <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/tausend-nadelstiche/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">hier</a>). Sollte es ein Innenminister ernst damit meinen, politische Gegner strategisch kleinzukriegen und in ihrer Arbeit zu st&ouml;ren, k&ouml;nnte das Vereinsrecht sogar zum Instrument der Wahl werden &ndash; und die Beobachtung durch den Verfassungsschutz ebenso wie das staatsanwaltlich gef&uuml;hrte Ermittlungsverfahren wegen Bildung einer kriminellen Vereinigung erg&auml;nzen.</p>
<h2>Strenge Folgen des Vereinsverbots</h2>
<p>Schon die direkten Rechtsfolgen des Vereinsverbots sind schlagkr&auml;ftig. Mit einem Vereinsverbot sind zugleich Ersatzorganisationen verboten. Das Ministerium beschlagnahmt das Verm&ouml;gen und zieht es ein, der Verein wird abgewickelt. Er kann seine R&auml;ume, Vereinsmaterialien, Konten und Websites nicht mehr nutzen. Kurdische Gruppen kennen die <a href="https://www.rav.de/publikationen/rav-infobriefe/infobrief-123-2022/verbot-kurdischer-kunst-und-kultur" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Reichweite dieser Auswirkungen</a>.</p>
<p>Die Rechtsfolgen erstrecken sich aber &uuml;ber die konkrete Vereinsarbeit hinaus. Das Ministerium kann in der Verbotsverf&uuml;gung Kennzeichen des verbotenen Vereins festlegen, was nach &sect; 86a Abs. 2 StGB unter anderem Fahnen, Abzeichen, Parolen und Gru&szlig;formeln beinhaltet. Die Verbreitung oder &ouml;ffentliche Verwendung solcher Kennzeichen ebenso wie die Herstellung oder Bevorratung entsprechender Inhalte ist nach &sect; 86a Abs. 1 StGB strafbar.</p>
<p>Formell ist die Festlegung nur deklaratorisch: Strafgerichte bewerten eigenst&auml;ndig, ob es sich wirklich um ein Kennzeichen verbotener Organisationen handelt. Und doch hat es schon jetzt weitreichende praktische Auswirkungen, wenn ein Innenministerium Kennzeichen festlegt: Im November 2023 umfasste das Bet&auml;tigungsverbot gegen die <a href="https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/pressemitteilungen/DE/2023/11/vereinsverbot-hamas-samidoun.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hamas</a> gleichzeitig den Slogan &bdquo;from the river to the sea&ldquo; als Kennzeichen der Terrororganisation. Daran schlie&szlig;en sich Verfahren gegen Personen an, die diesen sehr verbreiteten Slogan auf Demonstrationen verwenden. Wie etwa im Fall des <a href="https://www.lto.de/recht/nachrichten/n/lg-berlin-from-river-to-sea-staatsschutz-hamas-bgh" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">LG Berlin</a> ging es dabei nicht um die Frage, ob der Spruch antisemitisch und damit volksverhetzend ist. Vielmehr f&uuml;hrt das Hamas-Verbot dazu, dass es jetzt prim&auml;r um die Kennzeichen-Eigenschaft des Slogans geht. Dabei ist nach Ansicht des <a href="https://juris.bundesgerichtshof.de/cgi-bin/rechtsprechung/document.py?Gericht=bgh&amp;Art=en&amp;nr=45976" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BGH</a> und <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2009/05/rk20090518_2bvr220208.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG</a> unsch&auml;dlich, dass &bdquo;das Kennzeichen auch unverf&auml;ngliche Verwendung in anderem Zusammenhang findet&ldquo;. Eine allgemeine Protestbewegung muss also hoffen, dass nicht auch eine verbotene Gruppe ihren Spruch kopiert, sondern bei ihren eigenen Parolen bleibt &ndash; sonst droht, dass ihn am Ende niemand mehr verwenden darf.</p>
<p>Weiter in der Kette wirkt sich das Verbot auch auf Versammlungen aus: Nimmt die Versammlungsbeh&ouml;rde an, dass Demonstrierende den Slogan rufen oder eine entsprechende Flagge mitf&uuml;hren, kommen wegen drohender Straftaten wie im Fall des <a href="https://www.verwaltungsgericht.bremen.de/gerichtsentscheidung-en/from-the-river-to-the-sea-5-k-1012-24-urteil-vom-27-11-2025-26071?asl=bremen73.c.13039.de" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">VG Bremen</a> Auflagen oder gar Verbote in Betracht. Es bleibt abzuwarten, ob diese <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/zwischen-fluss-meer-und-strafbefehl/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">mit Blick auf die Meinungs- und Versammlungsfreiheit extrem restriktive</a> Rechtsprechung Bestand haben wird. Doch die Strafverfolgung greift nicht nur tief in eine genuin politische Grundrechtsaus&uuml;bung ein, sondern erweitert auch das Missbrauchspotenzial des Vereinsverbots. Denn durch die direkte Verkn&uuml;pfung gibt ein extensiv ausgelegter Straftatbestand des &sect; 86a StGB dem Vereinsverbot jedenfalls eine Reichweite, die sich weit &uuml;ber die organisatorische Zerschlagung auf ganze Protestbewegungen auswirkt.</p>
<h2>Schleusen auf f&uuml;r die Verfolgung</h2>
<p>Die Missbrauchsanf&auml;lligkeit geht nicht allein auf die weitreichenden Rechtsfolgen zur&uuml;ck: Schon der Tatbestand ist &auml;hnlich dem Verfassungsschutzrecht weit gefasst, zudem gibt das Vereinsgesetz dem Ministerium schon zur Ermittlung weitreichende Befugnisse an die Hand. W&auml;hrend das Vereinsverbot als &bdquo;kleines Parteiverbot&ldquo; (<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-kleine-parteiverbot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Groh</a>) seine Funktion eigentlich im &bdquo;<a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2018/07/rs20180713_1bvr147412.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pr&auml;ventiven Verfassungsschutz</a>&ldquo; einnehmen soll, kann es schnell zu einem Instrument werden, das einer autorit&auml;r auftretenden Regierung die notwendige Beinfreiheit gibt, um unliebsame Strukturen zu unterdr&uuml;cken.</p>
<p>Verbieten kann man einen Verein, wenn seine Zwecke oder seine T&auml;tigkeit den Strafgesetzen zuwiderlaufen oder er sich gegen die verfassungsm&auml;&szlig;ige Ordnung oder den Gedanken der V&ouml;lkerverst&auml;ndigung richtet. Die Verbotsgr&uuml;nde des Art. 9 Abs. 2 GG und &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Vereinsgesetz gehen deutlich &uuml;ber die des Parteiverbots hinaus (nochmal <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-kleine-parteiverbot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Groh</a>). Abgesehen von der Fr&uuml;hpr&auml;vention von Straftaten weisen sie eine gro&szlig;e N&auml;he zu den Gr&uuml;nden f&uuml;r eine Beobachtung durch den Verfassungsschutz (&sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 1 und 4 BVerfSchG) auf: &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Vereinsgesetz verlangt, dass sich der Verein &bdquo;gegen die verfassungsm&auml;&szlig;ige Ordnung oder den Gedanken der V&ouml;lkerverst&auml;ndigung richtet&ldquo;. Das Vereinsverbot baut an diesem Punkt unmittelbar auf der Beobachtung durch den Verfassungsschutz auf (dazu <a href="https://www.servat.unibe.ch/dfr/bv169130.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfGE 169, 130</a>).</p>
<p>&Uuml;ber den Ma&szlig;stab des Verfassungsschutzes geht das Vereinsgesetz aber noch hinaus: Nach &sect; 14 Vereinsgesetz kann das Ministerium sogenannte Ausl&auml;ndervereine, deren Mitglieder oder Leiter s&auml;mtlich oder &uuml;berwiegend Ausl&auml;nder sind, unter erweiterten Gr&uuml;nden verbieten. Dazu geh&ouml;rt insbesondere, dass sie die politische Willensbildung der BRD oder das &bdquo;friedliche Zusammenleben von Deutschen und Ausl&auml;ndern&ldquo; beeintr&auml;chtigen oder nur gef&auml;hrden. Gleiches gilt generalklauselartig f&uuml;r &bdquo;sonstige erhebliche Interessen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland&ldquo;. Gegen diese Ausl&auml;ndervereine zeigt der Staat besonders spitze Z&auml;hne, ohne viel Wert auf das rechtsstaatliche Bestimmtheitsgebot zu legen. Die j&uuml;ngsten Pl&auml;ne der Bundesregierung f&uuml;r besondere <a href="https://www.migazin.de/2026/04/15/kabinett-beschliesst-meldepflicht-fuer-auslaender-vereine/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Meldepflichten</a> zeigen, dass Ausl&auml;ndervereine sich auch schon jetzt zunehmend auf eine Sonderbehandlung im Stile autorit&auml;rer Playbooks (siehe etwa <a href="https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/russische-ngos-und-das-agenten-gesetz-isoliert-und-100.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Russland</a>, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/georgiens-rechtsstaatskrise" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Georgien</a> und <a href="https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/europa/ungarn-ngo-gesetz-102.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ungarn</a>) einstellen m&uuml;ssen.</p>
<h2>Ermitteln einfach gemacht</h2>
<p>Weitreichende Rechtsfolgen, essenzielles Instrument der wehrhaften Demokratie, tatbestandlich weit und fr&uuml;h ansetzend &ndash; bei dieser Mischung lie&szlig;e sich ein besonders verantwortungsvolles Verfahren erwarten. Das Parteiverbotsverfahren weist das Grundgesetz gleich den obersten Verfassungsorganen des Bundes zu, einschlie&szlig;lich einer konstitutiven Entscheidung durch das Bundesverfassungsgericht. Das Vereinsverbot hat der Gesetzgeber dagegen dem Innenminister allein in die H&auml;nde gelegt. Gerichte oder &uuml;berhaupt eine andere Instanz kommen gegebenenfalls erst dann zum Zuge, wenn der Verein schon verboten ist.</p>
<p>Ein Verbotsverfahren beginnt dabei &ndash; sei es gegen Ausl&auml;ndervereine oder andere &ndash; mit Ermittlungen. F&uuml;r diese &uuml;bergibt das Vereinsgesetz der Verbotsbeh&ouml;rde &ndash; also dem Innenministerium &ndash; in etwa die Rolle der Staatsanwaltschaft. F&uuml;r das Strafverfahren hat der <a href="https://www.verfgh.nrw.de/rechtsprechung/entscheidungen/1999/990209_11-98.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verfassungsgerichtshof NRW</a> nahegelegt, dass Staatsanwaltschaft und operativ ermittelnde Polizei schon aus rechtsstaatlichen Gesichtspunkten institutionell getrennt sein sollten: eine Gewaltenteilung auch innerhalb der Ermittlungsbeh&ouml;rden, um &bdquo;Interessenkonflikten&ldquo; entgegenzuwirken. F&uuml;r das rein administrativ ausgestaltete Vereinsverbot verzichtet der Gesetzgeber &ndash; insoweit folgerichtig &ndash; auf diese Differenzierung ebenso wie auf eine Anklage, einen Richtervorbehalt oder die Beteiligung des Justizministeriums.</p>
<p>Nach &sect; 4 Abs. 1 Vereinsgesetz kann die Verbotsbeh&ouml;rde f&uuml;r ihre Ermittlungen die Hilfe der f&uuml;r die Wahrung der &ouml;ffentlichen Sicherheit und Ordnung zust&auml;ndigen Beh&ouml;rden oder Dienststellen in Anspruch nehmen. In der Praxis f&uuml;hren BKA oder LKA die Ermittlungen im Wesentlichen. H&auml;ufig ermitteln die Beh&ouml;rden ohne offene Ermittlungsma&szlig;nahmen und &uuml;berraschen dann, indem sie <a href="https://www.bverwg.de/050809U6A3.08.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">auf eine Anh&ouml;rung i.S.d. &sect; 28 Abs. 1 VwVfG verzichten</a> und Verbot und &ouml;ffentlichkeitswirksame Razzia verbinden. Sie k&ouml;nnen aber auch schon fr&uuml;her zugreifen: Ermitteln k&ouml;nnen sie bereits dann, wenn ein Anfangsverdacht besteht, dass die weit gefassten Verbotsgr&uuml;nde vorliegen. Antr&auml;ge auf richterliche Zeugenvernehmung, Beschlagnahmen von Beweismitteln oder Durchsuchungen stellen das BKA, LKA oder Innenministerium direkt beim Verwaltungsgericht (&sect; 4 Abs. 2 Vereinsgesetz), das immerhin hier beteiligt wird. Schon hier &ndash; also weit vor einem ausgesprochenen Verbot &ndash; erweitern sich beobachtende Verfassungsschutzkompetenzen aber um handfeste Eingriffsm&ouml;glichkeiten, ohne dass es einen Bezug zu Straftaten braucht.</p>
<h2>Verlockender Aktionismus</h2>
<p>Sollte eine Regierung das Vereinsverbot zu instrumentalisieren versuchen, k&ouml;nnten die Gerichte einschreiten. Das <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2018/07/rs20180713_1bvr147412.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bundesverfassungsgericht</a> betont, dass die Verbotsgr&uuml;nde eng auszulegen sind, und die neueren Entscheidungen des Bundesverwaltungsgerichts unterstreichen, dass Leipzig die Verbote jedenfalls nicht leichtfertig durchwinkt. Die Justiz ist ein entscheidendes, wenn nicht das Element der demokratischen Gewaltenteilung, um ausuferndes Regierungshandeln aufzuhalten. Doch auch hier k&ouml;nnten gewillte Regierungen mit dem Vereinsverbotsverfahren Schwachstellen ausnutzen, denen sich die Justiz in solchen Szenarien besonders ausgesetzt sieht: fehlende Reaktionsschnelligkeit und fehlender Justizzugang.</p>
<p>Ein Innenminister k&ouml;nnte ohne Weiteres auch auf die US-amerikanische Strategie des &bdquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/die-judikative-in-der-herrschaft-des-bullshits/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">move fast and break things</a>&ldquo; setzen und das kalkulierte Risiko, vermutlich erst Jahre sp&auml;ter gerichtlich eingehegt zu werden, in Kauf nehmen. In den USA hat Donald Trump <a href="https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/amerika/trump-antifa-terrororganisation-102.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">per Executive Order die Antifa als Terrororganisation eingestuft</a>, auch wenn einige die Folgen <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2025/09/18/us/politics/trump-antifa-terrorist-group.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">f&uuml;r &uuml;berschaubar halten</a>. Die AfD hat <a href="https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/19/200/1920074.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">schon 2020 im Bundestag ein Antifa-Verbot gefordert</a> und Trumps Vorsto&szlig; hat sie <a href="https://de.euronews.com/2025/10/16/linksextremistische-gewalt-afd-will-antifa-verbieten-lassen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in ihrer Forderung</a> nochmal best&auml;rkt. Gleiches gilt f&uuml;r ausgemachte Feindbilder wie die Klimabewegung oder queere Strukturen. Zwar ist auch der weit gefasste Begriff der Vereinigung nicht grenzenlos: Ein Verbot &bdquo;der Antifa&ldquo; oder &bdquo;der LGBTIQ*-Community&ldquo;, auch auf Landesebene in Sachsen-Anhalt oder Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, kommt schon mangels organisierter Willensbildung von vornherein nicht rechtm&auml;&szlig;ig in Betracht. Das muss aber einen Innenminister, der sich von der Pflicht zu rechtm&auml;&szlig;igem Handeln nicht gebunden f&uuml;hlt, weder von Ermittlungen noch vom Erlass eines Verbots abhalten. Gerade wenn gar keine organisierte Struktur betroffen ist, muss das Verbot zudem erstmal bei den Gerichten landen. F&uuml;r den Verein, der keiner ist, muss sich eine Vertreter:in finden, die dazu noch eine m&ouml;gliche Strafverfolgung nach &sect; 129 StGB <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2023/02/rk20230201_1bvr133620.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nicht scheut</a>. Und eine Klagebefugnis des einzelnen Mitglieds <a href="https://www.bverwg.de/de/190710B6B20.10.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">lehnt das Bundesverwaltungsgericht in den meisten F&auml;llen ab</a>.</p>
<p>W&auml;hrend diese Fragen zu kl&auml;ren sind, l&auml;uft die Zeit zugunsten des autorit&auml;ren Innenministers: Denn der ordnet in der Regel nach &sect; 80 Abs. 2 Satz 1 Nr. 4 VwGO die sofortige Vollziehung des Verbots an, mit der Folge, dass eine Klage keine aufschiebende Wirkung hat. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat sogar <a href="https://www.servat.unibe.ch/dfr/bv080244.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">best&auml;tigt</a>, dass die Strafbarkeit des &sect; 20 Vereinsgesetz schon greift, sobald das Verbot vollziehbar ist, nicht erst, wenn es unanfechtbar wird. Rechtsschutz gegen einzelne Vollzugsma&szlig;nahmen hat nach &sect; 6 Vereinsgesetz erstmal ebenfalls keine aufschiebende Wirkung, und das Verfahren ist bis zur Entscheidung &uuml;ber das Verbot als solches auszusetzen. Im Hammerskins-Fall hat Letzteres &uuml;ber zwei Jahre gedauert. Bis dahin entfaltet das Verbot erstmal Wirkung.</p>
<h2>Ausblick</h2>
<p>Fristen Vereinsverbote zumindest auf Landesebene bisher ein Schattendasein, k&ouml;nnte ein autorit&auml;r-populistischer Landesinnenminister in den Genuss eines gef&auml;hrlich weit gefassten Repressionswerkzeugs kommen. Gegen abstrakt gefasste Vereinsverbote muss sich erstmal &ndash; und schnell &ndash; eine Kl&auml;gerin finden. Die Gerichte tun gut daran, in Zukunft enge Linien f&uuml;r das Vereinsverbot aufzuzeigen, auch wenn das Bundesverwaltungsgericht dies bisher eher in den Details als in den Grunds&auml;tzen gezeigt hat. Auf einen <a href="https://www.sueddeutsche.de/meinung/hammerskins-neonazis-verbot-bundesverwaltungsgericht-kommentar-li.3357223" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">peinlich</a> unprofessionellen Umgang mit Vereinsverboten sollte man bei einem autorit&auml;r regierten Innenministerium jedenfalls nicht hoffen. Der Gesetzgeber k&ouml;nnte nachsch&auml;rfen: beim &uuml;berm&auml;&szlig;ig weiten Tatbestand, dem im Innenministerium zentrierten Verbotsverfahren ohne Richtervorbehalt, dem erschwerten Rechtsschutz und den direkten Linien ins Strafgesetzbuch. In der jetzigen Ausgestaltung k&ouml;nnte das Vereinsverbot in den falschen H&auml;nden statt der Wehrf&auml;higkeit des demokratischen Rechtsstaats vielmehr die Wehrlosigkeit der Betroffenen sicherstellen.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vereinsverbot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Vereinnahmtes Vereinsgesetz</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-10T11:24:20+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Jannik Jaschinski</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-10T11:24:20+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="afd"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="innenministerium"/>

	<category term="sachsen-anhalt"/>

	<category term="sachsen-anhalt und mecklenburg-vorpommern"/>

	<category term="vereinsverbot"/>

	<category term="verwaltungsrecht"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-10:/290022</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/media-reform-hungary-poland/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Learning from Poland’s Imperfect Reform</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>If Hungary under the government of P&eacute;ter Magyar and the TISZA party is to learn from the uneven, pro...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>If Hungary under the government of P&eacute;ter Magyar and the TISZA party is to learn from the <a href="https://www.gmfus.org/news/polands-rule-law-repair-trapped-institutional-paralysis" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">uneven</a>, protracted, yet ongoing and open-ended democratic repair pursued under the coalition government of Donald Tusk in Poland since December 2023, it is that a comprehensive and swift reform of the media ecosystem is crucial.</p>
<p>A meaningful media system reform does not simply entail taking control of public service media but rather transforming the broader ecosystem to enhance media freedom and pluralism while ensuring the independence of the state institutions that are essential to safeguarding them. The reform should lead to fulfilling the obligations arising from the European Union media law, notably the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1083/oj/eng" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Media Freedom Act</a> (EMFA), and implement the Court of Justice&rsquo;s <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-frequencies-of-freedom/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">case law</a>. Soft law <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/committee-of-ministers-adopted-texts" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">standards</a> developed by the Council of Europe also provide specific guidelines for such reform.</p>
<p>Crucially, the media reform should not only be lawful but also perceived as legitimate; to this end, it is important that changes are made in good faith, take effect as swiftly as possible, are properly and publicly reasoned, and are proportionate to the aim pursued. The reform should aim to make state institutions, such as media regulators and public service media, more independent and pluralistic. It should also bring to an end the model of <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rebuilding-markets-restoring-democracy/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">illiberal capitalism</a> and dismantle the media capture model. Instead, the reform should introduce <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-missing-dimension/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">genuine competition</a> into the internal market for media services, while at the same time contributing to the preservation of the values enshrined in Article 2 TEU, including through improvements in media freedom and pluralism.</p>
<h2>Why Media Reform Is a Priority in Transition 2.0</h2>
<p>After democratic backsliding, comprehensive reform of the media ecosystem is not only a sectoral policy exercise but an essential component of <a href="https://www.inlibra.com/en/document/view/detail/uuid/aaf6412d-21d4-38a8-a9a8-9d5fd5afd01d" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Transition 2.0</a>. A key issue in debates on post-backsliding democratic reform concerns the temporality and sequencing of measures across different institutions. Tom Gerald Daly, in his theory of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/73/1/1/8211431" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">comparative constitutional repair</a>, argues that a reformist government must first clearly identify the areas requiring repair, decide when reforms should be undertaken, and establish priorities among them, determine what is feasible, and act in a proportionate way. Tom Ginsburg and Aziz Huq, in their theory of <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ethics-and-international-affairs/article/pragmatics-of-democratic-frontsliding/1BB167215530A29E0CCA3C70805B7BBD" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&lsquo;democratic front-sliding&rsquo;</a>, also emphasise the importance of sequencing. They argue that the first step should be to preserve &lsquo;epistemic institutions&rsquo;, which generate neutral information and can counter disinformation about the reform process.</p>
<p>Given the specific context of post-backsliding settings, in which <a href="https://preprints.apsanet.org/engage/apsa/article-details/684741dd1a8f9bdab52742c0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&lsquo;autocratic enclaves&rsquo; </a>operate within state institutions and seek to delegitimise, obstruct, or delay the reforms pursued by a new government, ensuring the independence of such knowledge-producing institutions becomes particularly important. Democratic backsliding characteristically produces an &lsquo;<a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-54489-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">illiberal public sphere</a>&rsquo;. This emerges through the politicisation of media regulatory bodies, the partisan capture of public service media and their transformation into instruments of partisan propaganda, media capture &ndash; meaning buyouts of private media by government proxies &ndash;, the discriminatory allocation of public funds to pro-government outlets, and the creation of various legal, administrative, and financial obstacles for independent private media.</p>
<p>A paradigmatic illiberal media sphere, or even <a href="https://www.illiberalism.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Peter-Kreko-The-Birth-of-an-Illiberal-Informational-Autocracy-in-Europe.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&lsquo;illiberal informational autocracy&rsquo;</a>, was created in Hungary under Fidesz between 2010 and 2026. In its &ldquo;2026 World Press Freedom Index&rdquo;, Reporters Without Borders <a href="https://rsf.org/en/index" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ranked</a> Hungary 74<sup>th</sup> out of 180 countries; within the EU, only Cyprus (80<sup>th</sup>) and Greece (86<sup>th</sup>) performed worse.</p>
<p>Recent EU media legislation, in particular the EMFA, has effectively rendered such illiberal media policies unlawful under EU law and imposed <a href="https://www.inlibra.com/de/document/view/pdf/uuid/1628a654-2386-3966-ab95-6b0b5571938f?page=1&amp;toc=5683514" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">new obligations on Member States</a> to review their legal frameworks and ensure compliance.</p>
<p>Reforming the media ecosystem is of central importance in <em>Transition 2.0</em>, because post-backsliding societies often experience very high levels of <a href="https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap-oa/book/9781035310609/chapter27.xml?tab_body=abstract-copy1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">affective polarisation</a>. The previously governing party typically remains the largest political force in opposition and retains significant capacity to shape public debate and influence voters through networks and institutions established during democratic backsliding, including &lsquo;captured&rsquo; public service media and private media outlets. Whoever prevails in the narrative surrounding the democratic repair may ultimately gain a decisive advantage in the next elections. This also applies to Hungary.</p>
<h2>The Ambivalent Polish Lesson</h2>
<p>The political and institutional conditions in Hungary following the 2026 parliamentary elections differ significantly from those in Poland after the 2023 elections. While the scale of the problem in Hungary appears greater, the institutional room for manoeuvre also seems considerably broader. In Hungary, TISZA enjoys a constitutional majority, which creates the possibility of enacting a new constitution, although there are important <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungary-constitutional-repair/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">voices</a> advocating swiftly passing targeted amendments instead. The new governing majority will also be able to enact legislative changes.</p>
<p>By contrast, in Poland&rsquo;s system, formally parliamentary in nature, yet granting the President a strong veto power and significant capacity to obstruct the government, cohabitation under conditions of deep political polarisation means that the government experiences legislative paralysis, as crucial laws adopted by parliament may ultimately not enter into force. However, a major weakness of the Polish <em>Transition 2.0</em>, irrespective of the presidential veto power, has been the government&rsquo;s failure to prepare and adopt legislation swiftly. This has also weakened the legitimacy of the reformist aims of the Polish government.</p>
<p>Ending propaganda in public service media had been one of the central promises of the parties forming the current Polish government. Immediately after it was formed in December 2023, the government moved to take control of public media, promising to restore their independence and impartiality. The Minister of Culture, acting as the sole proprietor of the state-owned media companies, invoked the Commercial Companies Code and replaced the management boards of the public television broadcaster, public radio, and the state press agency. However, under the existing legal framework, the boards of public media entities should have been appointed by an independent media regulator. The previous government of the PiS (Prawo i Sprawiedliwo&#347;&#263;) party had removed these competences from the constitutionally established National Broadcasting Council (KRRiT) and transferred them to a newly created media regulator, the National Media Council (RMN). Both bodies had been staffed by individuals appointed by the PiS government, and they attempted to block the changes in the public media, as other autocratic enclaves did, notably the <a href="https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20240000096/O/D20240096.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Constitutional Tribunal</a>. Eventually the public service media companies were placed into liquidation, allowing management by liquidators; this arrangement continues, although no dissolution is intended. An unconventional solution, initially raising <a href="https://hfhr.pl/en/news/statement-changes-in-the-public-media" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">concerns</a> as to its legality, was ultimately approved by the court registers.</p>
<p>The government&rsquo;s approach to public service media, in the form inherited from the democratic backsliding era, initially triggered protests and a short-lived boycott of the &lsquo;new&rsquo; public broadcaster by opposition politicians from the PiS party and affiliated circles. However, PiS politicians returned to public television ahead of the 2024 European Parliament elections. Many media workers in public service media, who had been clearly aligned with the previous government and are now supportive of the opposition PiS, moved to rapidly expanding commercial, right-leaning news outlets, illustrating how years of illiberal media policy had cultivated audience preferences for particular types of political content.</p>
<p>In Poland&rsquo;s highly polarised society, trust in public service media remains divided. Although positive assessments of public television <a href="https://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2024/K_051_24.PDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increased</a> in 2024, reaching 42 per cent &ndash; its highest level since 2016 &ndash; it remains moderate; in 2014 it was at 84 per cent. Public media continue to be perceived through the lens of political polarisation and accusations of bias. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-026-10127-w" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Studies</a> further indicate that trust in public television rose among supporters of the new government, while declining among PiS supporters.</p>
<p>The Polish case suggests that the credibility of <em>Transition 2.0</em> depends on swift legislative action. Although media reform was presented as a priority, the draft media bill, intended to implement the EMFA and other EU media regulation, such as the Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD) and the Digital Services Act (DSA), was unveiled almost two years after the current government took office. After public consultation, it has yet to be scheduled for parliamentary consideration. The Minister of Culture has announced that this is expected to take place in the second half of this year. The bill carries a high risk of being vetoed by President Nawrocki, even though it aims to depoliticise the public media. In January, the President <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/freedom-of-speech-lost-in-translation-2/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">vetoed</a> the act implementing the DSA in Poland.</p>
<p>The measures adopted by the current Polish government with respect to public service media contributed to further polarisation, yet they proved effective: the PiS-era propaganda in state media ended. However, some programmes broadcast today on TVP and TVP Info, the public news channel, have not become fully impartial, despite the new management&rsquo;s earlier promises to that effect. Politicians from the governing party receive the largest share of airtime by far, and individual programmes are criticised for failing to scrutinise the government more robustly. It must be emphasised, however, that the situation is by no means comparable with the propaganda-driven era in 2015&ndash;2023. The performance of the regional branches of the public broadcaster, which comprise 16 stations, is assessed rather positively today. Particularly concerning, however, were recent reports from TVP3 Wroc&#322;aw, where employees accused management of censoring material concerning the city&rsquo;s mayor. Under the PiS government, some regional stations were misused to conduct hateful smear campaigns against opposition politicians. Such practices are no longer taking place today. Moreover, the Polish Press Agency now operates independently, and allegations of political bias have not been directed against it.</p>
<p>The Polish case also demonstrates that questions of accountability for past abuses remain important. In the media domain, in July 2025 the governing majority in the Sejm voted to bring Maciej &#346;wirski, the chair of KRRiT elected in 2022 for a term expiring in 2028, before the State Tribunal. The motion concerned eleven charges, including unjustifiably delaying broadcasting licence proceedings and arbitrarily imposing fines on private broadcasters. Following the initiation of the proceedings, the KRRiT decided to remove him from the position of chair. On the question of accountability for past abuses, then-Minister of Justice Adam Bodnar established a commission composed of lawyers and researchers to investigate mechanisms of repression directed against civil society between 2015 and 2023. The commission published a <a href="https://www.gov.pl/web/sprawiedliwosc/prezentacja-drugiego-raportu-komisji-ds-represji-wobec-spoleczenstwa-obywatelskiego" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">report</a> on abuses of power targeting independent media, including the use of SLAPP lawsuits. The parliament adopted a <a href="https://www.sejm.gov.pl/sejm10.nsf/PrzebiegProc.xsp?id=B9F121B2B2A14771C1258DE9003305BE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bill</a> implementing the EU Anti-SLAPP Directive in Poland, although it remains unclear whether it will be signed by the President.</p>
<p>The current Polish government promised to dismantle the media capture legacy of the democratic backsliding era, meaning the acquisition of media outlets through political-party proxies. In Poland, this notably concerned the 2021 acquisition of the regional newspaper and online portal group Polska Press from Verlagsgruppe Passau for PLN 201 million (EUR 46.99 million) by PKN Orlen, the largest oil and gas company in Central and Eastern Europe. The Polska Press group includes 20 regional daily newspapers, local weeklies, and free press outlets. Following the change of government, the new management of PKN Orlen announced plans to restructure the company and eventually sell the media group after increasing its value, a position also supported by the Minister of State Assets, who oversees state-controlled companies such as PKN Orlen. Here, however, purely business considerations intersect with democratic concerns, particularly in the context of the parliamentary elections scheduled for 2027. The company&rsquo;s financial performance is not the only issue at stake; it is also necessary to fulfil the promise of ending the negative practices associated with the previous government.</p>
<p>Despite media reform having progressed slowly and not all electoral promises having been fulfilled, Poland moved in 2026 to 21<sup>st</sup> place globally in the Reporters Without Borders <a href="https://rsf.org/en/2026-rsf-index-press-freedom-25-year-low" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Press Freedom Index</a>. The media market is dynamic, and commercial projects supportive of the current opposition have been developing successfully. However, the diversity and richness of the media landscape also distinguished Poland from Hungary during the period of democratic backsliding.</p>
<p>The Polish case provides the following preliminary lessons for democratic repair in other jurisdictions. First, extraordinary measures that breach the law, even if taken to pursue a higher constitutional goal, must remain exceptional and proportionate. In a context of deep political polarisation, such measures significantly weaken the legitimacy of the broader democratic-repair process. Second, to enhance the legitimacy of its reform, a comprehensive legislative reform package should be presented swiftly. The reform should strengthen the independence and impartiality of state institutions responsible for media freedom and pluralism, such as media regulators and public service media. Third, EU law provides robust standards for the direction of reform, and adapting the domestic legal framework to them is a legal obligation. Fourth, those managing public service media should ensure that they act, and are seen to act, as impartially as possible. Fifth, it is also necessary to swiftly dismantle the legacy of media capture exercised through proxies linked to the previous ruling party. Sixth, accountability for past abuses of power in the media sphere may be pursued through differentiated measures, such as political accountability mechanisms and criminal proceedings as well as independent commissions established to investigate past practices and produce public reports. Seventh, it is necessary to create a framework for the functioning of a competitive internal market for media services.</p>
<h2>The Roadmap for Hungary</h2>
<p>P&eacute;ter Magyar&rsquo;s government has an opportunity to complete Hungarian <em>Transition 2.0</em> in the media sphere more effectively than Poland did. Such reform should be guided by the standards of EU media regulation, notably the EMFA.</p>
<p>The legal problems affecting Hungary&rsquo;s media ecosystem have already been thoroughly identified and precisely diagnosed by EU institutions. In particular, the European Commission&rsquo;s annual Rule of Law Reports have consistently recommended strengthening the <em>functional</em> independence of media regulatory bodies (Article 5 EMFA) and public service media (Article 7 EMFA and Article 30 AVMSD), increasing transparency and fairness in the allocation of state advertising (Article 25 EMFA), enhancing transparency of media ownership structures (Article 16 EMFA), expanding access to information under freedom of information legislation, and improving working conditions for journalists. These concerns are also reflected in ongoing EU <a href="https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-calls-hungary-comply-european-media-freedom-act-and-audiovisual-media-services-directive" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">infringement proceedings</a> based on the EMFA and the Audiovisual Media Services Directive.</p>
<p>Under Fidesz governments, Hungary systematically rejected these assessments and the obligations stemming from EU law, including those introduced by the EMFA, which it challenged before the CJEU. The new government now has an opportunity to reverse this approach and guide its reforms accordingly. The specific legislative changes required to bring the Hungarian framework into compliance with EU standards have already been <a href="https://mertek.eu/en/2025/11/27/emfas-hungarian-implications-and-impact-on-the-hungarian-legal-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">identified</a> in detail. After years of democratic backsliding negatively affecting media freedom and pluralism, Hungary now has an opportunity to act in line with the requirements of Article 3 of the EMFA, which guarantees the rights of recipients of media services, both individuals and legal persons, and establishes conditions enabling them to access a plurality of editorially independent media content. The task is daunting, but by drawing on Poland&rsquo;s experience, the Hungarian government is well placed to do better.</p>
<p><em>The work was supported by the National Science Centre, Poland, under the research project &lsquo;The European Union media regulation and the protection of media freedom in Member States. The case of Member States experiencing the rule of law crisis&rsquo;, 2024/52/C/HS5/00156 SONATINA 8.</em></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/media-reform-hungary-poland/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Learning from Poland&rsquo;s Imperfect Reform</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-10T10:30:29+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Anna Wójcik</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-10T10:30:29+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="democratic restoration"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="european media freedom act"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="media"/>

	<category term="media pluralism"/>

	<category term="on law and politics in the hungarian transition"/>

	<category term="polen"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-09:/289964</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-removal-of-key-office-holders/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Removal of Key Office Holders</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>After the deadline that Prime Minister P&eacute;ter Magyar set for the key constitutional actors to resign ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>After the deadline that Prime Minister P&eacute;ter Magyar set for the key constitutional actors to resign passed &ndash; including the President of the Republic, the Prosecutor General, and the Presidents of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the National Judicial Office &ndash; he reiterated the government&rsquo;s intention to remove them by a single constitutional amendment. They are all Orb&aacute;n appointees; some of them assumed office through personalized legislation, and by their actions or inaction, they facilitated the entrenchment of the Orb&aacute;n regime and the impunity of the oligarchs, cronies, and others connected to it, in both formal and informal ways. There are more than enough political, and in some cases even constitutional, arguments for their removal. As the apparent political intention is to proceed through constitutional amendment, two paradoxes must be reconciled. The <em>anticipatory obstruction paradox</em>, which must disable any future deadlocks even before these are carried out without knowing for sure that they would even occur; and the <em>procedural self-entrenchment paradox</em> of the constitutional reconstruction reforms, which must disable the function of the President in promulgating and sending a constitutional amendment to be published, effectively removing this function. While it is essential to overcome both of the said paradoxes, this goes only while acknowledging that these are in themselves constitutional wrongdoings that must be confronted rather than concealed, and thus subjecting them to the highest possible standards of public justification and deliberation.</p>
<h2>The Anticipatory Obstruction Paradox</h2>
<p>President Sulyok <a href="https://tudas.hu/sulyok-tamas-nem-mond-le/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">declared</a> that he does not intend to be an obstacle to reconstruction but will enforce the rule of law and other constitutional requirements. He also explained that he has so far signed the bills promoted by the new government. However, given his inaction since entering office (2024) on politically and legally sensitive matters, this newly discovered commitment to democratic values and the constitutional role of the presidency is less than fully convincing. The same can be said of <a href="https://x.com/DrTamasSulyok/status/2062525220804530615" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">his petition</a> to the Venice Commission, which he submitted after P&eacute;ter Magyar publicly committed to his removal, at which point, however, neither the legal basis nor the specific mechanism of removal had been determined. His sudden reliance on the Venice Commission is particularly noteworthy given that Fidesz has routinely ignored its opinions and has repeatedly <a href="https://telex.hu/belfold/2026/06/01/velencei-bizottsag-alaptorveny-sulyok-tamas-magyar-peter-jogallam" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">described it as</a> politically biased and a Soros agent. With this move, he already seems to be slowing and stalling reconstruction efforts at the level of constitutional institutions.</p>
<p>In his X message, the President stated:</p>
<blockquote><p>&ldquo;The planned removal from office of the President and the heads of other independent constitutional organs may cause a constitutional crisis and constitute a threat to fundamental constitutional principles. The heightened attention to the events is evidenced by the fact that the Venice Commission has already expressed its intention to investigate the case under an accelerated procedure.&rdquo;</p></blockquote>
<p>While his earlier inaction can be politically criticized, this latter intervention, given the context of the Hungarian illiberal or hybrid state (2010-2026) and the promise of regime change that culminated in the electoral authorization on 12 April 2026, may also have constitutional significance.</p>
<p>Whether the President is genuinely concerned about constitutional crisis and constitutional principles is ultimately beside the point. Given his conduct since taking office, and the broader context of democratic, rule of law, and human rights <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/german-law-journal/article/illiberal-constitutionalism-the-case-of-hungary-and-poland/01DA5EB12D2734935C659B96CE012BFD" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">deterioration in Hungary</a>, the intervention is difficult to separate from its practical effect: delaying and potentially obstructing the reconstruction process. Should he and all the other office holders be concerned about these, they would have resigned. Seeking the advice of the Venice Commission is, in itself, a legitimate constitutional tool. The problem arises when that tool is used not to resolve constitutional uncertainty but primarily to delay democratically authorized constitutional change. In the present context, the request appears less as a search for constitutional guidance than as an attempt to create an additional veto point in the reconstruction process. At the very least, it raises suspicions of abuse of the institution and of the right to seek advice.</p>
<p>The fa&ccedil;ade, illiberal legality, autocratic legalism, however we choose to describe it, thus continues to operate against the electoral mandate for regime change and the political commitment to it. This request strengthens the otherwise weak constitutional justifications for the President&rsquo;s removal (as I argued <a href="https://blog-iacl-aidc.org/2026-posts/2026/5/26/constitutional-reconstruction-and-removal-of-veto-players" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>), by prompting the parliamentary majority to await the Venice Commission&rsquo;s opinion. Otherwise, it could be portrayed as disregarding important constitutional concerns and abusing its constitutional authorization. If one does not regard the petition itself as a sufficiently strong constitutional argument for removal, which can also be reasonably maintained, then one must wait until an actual obstruction occurs in the form of a political or constitutional veto. This would then make the constitutional justification stick, but it may already have delayed or rendered reconstruction ineffective. This is an anticipatory obstruction paradox. Preventive removal therefore becomes a constitutionally defensible option, even if it remains difficult to justify fully in rule-of-law terms. Ironically, the President&rsquo;s own conduct may continue to strengthen the constitutional case against him.</p>
<p>What would prevent the preventive removal? In the Hungarian constitutional system, the head of state can stall reforms by sending the adopted law back to parliament (political veto) or, if deemed unconstitutional, to the Constitutional Court (CC, constitutional veto). As the parliament enjoys a constitutional majority, it can override the veto. In ex ante constitutional review, the CC must decide within 30 days, or within 10 days when asked regarding a newly adopted law following a presidential constitutional veto. Constitutional amendments may only be challenged on procedural grounds; substantive review, based on both the wording of the constitution and the CC&rsquo;s doctrine, is unavailable. If a constitutional amendment is found unconstitutional on procedural grounds, it must be reconsidered by Parliament.</p>
<p>Theoretically, nothing prevents the President from repeatedly exercising the constitutional veto. Nor does anything prevent the CC from engaging in a loop with the President, thereby preventing essential reforms &ndash; including constitutional amendments &ndash; from taking effect. We <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/essential-but-not-enough/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">do not yet know how</a> the CC would behave in such circumstances. What we do know is that the constitutional framework permits such a loop, and <a href="https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/gj-2025-0028/html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">existing scholarship</a> on how the CC served the government in the decade suggests this possibility cannot be dismissed as merely theoretical.</p>
<p>A similar, albeit weaker, anticipatory obstruction paradox is therefore present in relation to the CC. At the same time, as I <a href="https://blog-iacl-aidc.org/2026-posts/2026/5/26/constitutional-reconstruction-and-removal-of-veto-players" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">argued</a>, the constitutional justification for the removal of CC judges is stronger than in the case of the President.</p>
<p>The anticipatory obstruction paradox holds that, for a proper constitutional justification, we should wait until evidence emerges, but if we wait, the reconstruction reforms could become impossible. Constitutional actors are therefore confronted with a choice between competing constitutional wrongs: accepting the risk of constitutional deadlock and the failure of reconstruction or pursuing the preventive removal of key veto players and the reconstructive removal of other actors, especially the President of the K&uacute;ria, as a first step towards rebuilding the independence of the ordinary justice system (about this, see e.g., <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/restoring-constitutional-justice-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a> and <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/fixing-the-hungarian-bench/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>).</p>
<p>This leads us to the procedural self-entrenchment paradox of constitutional amendments aimed at removing these constitutional actors.</p>
<h2>The Procedural Self-Entrenchment Paradox</h2>
<p>The procedural self-entrenchment paradox arises from the constitutional amendment process itself, which the TISZA government has reportedly chosen as the mechanism for removing key constitutional office holders. As noted above, besides Parliament, the principal actors in this process are the President and the Constitutional Court. The constitutional amendment will be directed precisely at removing these actors from office. Why would they agree to it? Had they accepted the logic and necessity of removal, they could have resigned by the 31 May 2026 deadline. They did not.</p>
<p>The paradox is straightforward. The constitutional amendment must be signed into law by a President whose own removal is among the amendment&rsquo;s objectives. The President and the Constitutional Court may therefore become participants in a process designed to terminate their own mandates. The amendment can be sent back and forth between constitutional actors, preventing it from becoming law. Alternatively, the Constitutional Court, through an <a href="https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk15026/files/media/documents/53-3_Landau_Dixon.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abusive constitutional interpretation</a> intended to still serve Fidesz&rsquo;s political agenda, could invoke the implied eternity clause of constitutional identity and annul it &ndash; but whether they would do so is now unknown. In either scenario, the constitutional amendment may fail to enter into force, the veto players remain in office, and the election of new office holders becomes impossible.</p>
<p>The question, then, is how this paradox can be overcome, assuming that the President insists on remaining in office, as the available evidence suggests. Any solution must address a fundamental difficulty: the President&rsquo;s role in the lawmaking process, including constitutional amendment, is itself constitutionally entrenched. Under the Fundamental Law, any new method for adopting constitutional amendments must be established by a constitutional amendment. This is precisely where the procedural self-entrenchment paradox lies.</p>
<h2>Impeachment or Extra-Constitutional Reconstruction</h2>
<p>When political negotiation and voluntary resignation fail, two options remain. The first is the temporary suspension of President Sulyok through impeachment, an option Prime Minister Magyar has ruled out. The second is the establishment of an extra-constitutional reconstruction framework in which presidential promulgation is no longer a necessary condition for signing bills into law. Both would involve constitutional wrongs committed in order to overcome the procedural self-entrenchment paradox and allow constitutional <a href="https://constitutionnet.org/news/voices/out-illiberal-christian-democracy-hungarys-prospects-constitutional-resettlement" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">renewal</a> to proceed.</p>
<p>Impeachment was reportedly not chosen, which at first sight appears to be the correct decision. It would likely have amounted to a parliamentary coup, understood here as the deliberate misuse of a constitutional procedure for a purpose other than its intended purpose. It would be difficult to argue that President Sulyok (in office from 2024 onwards) has violated the Fundamental Law to a degree that meets the high accountability threshold attached to the office of the head of state. This remains true even if one considers his request for a Venice Commission opinion to be an abuse of power or attributes constitutional significance to it. Nevertheless, impeachment would have offered a straightforward way of overcoming the procedural self-entrenchment paradox. Once the impeachment procedure is initiated, the Speaker of Parliament assumes the functions of the head of state until the proceedings are concluded and could therefore sign the relevant constitutional amendments and legislation into law.</p>
<h2>The Conditions of Extra-Constitutional Reconstruction</h2>
<p>If the constitutional majority concludes that the procedural self-entrenchment paradox cannot be overcome within the existing constitutional framework, then any extra-constitutional reconstruction framework would have to satisfy at least the following conditions. It should be framed as a temporary reconstruction instrument, distinct from the constitutional framework ordinarily governing constitutional amendment and institutional change in constitutional democracies and in the Hungarian constitutional tradition. Such a framework should contain at least three elements. First, it should define itself as a temporary reconstruction device, adopted either as a supplement to the Fundamental Law or as a separate structural unit attached to it. Second, it should establish the procedure for its own adoption, including a justification for why presidential promulgation and publication are not treated as indispensable procedural requirements, grounded in the anticipatory obstruction paradox. Third, it should regulate the removal and replacement of affected office holders and establish the criteria and procedures for electing their successors.</p>
<p>These arrangements should themselves be temporary. This may require shortened terms of office until new appointment mechanisms can be established through an ordinary constitutional amendment process or in a future constitution. In the case of the President, the Speaker of Parliament could temporarily assume the functions of the office until a successor is elected through a negotiated process.</p>
<p>Given the refusal of these actors, especially the President, to resign, both options would amount to a form of popularly legitimized parliamentary coup: a workaround that can only be defended as a tragic and openly acknowledged constitutional wrong committed to avoid greater anti-constitutional harm. It could also be argued that either option would leave the constitutional supermajority in Parliament without effective political or constitutional checks. This objection is a serious one. That is precisely why any such measures would require the highest possible degree of public justification, transparency, and parliamentary deliberation. The weaker the constitutional basis of the chosen solution, the stronger the procedural safeguards and justificatory requirements must be. Both the underlying dilemma and the available options should therefore be openly debated and defended in Parliament and before the broader public. As this presupposes a longer process, the opinion of the Venice Commission could also be awaited and engaged with in depth when justifying whichever solution the parliamentary supermajority ultimately chooses.</p>
<h2>Confronting Constitutional Wrongs</h2>
<p>The less justified and less connected to rule-of-law principles the constitutional amendment of removal is, the greater the risk that constitutional reconstruction itself will be portrayed as authoritarian constitutional change. Avoiding this trap requires confronting, rather than concealing, the constitutional wrongs involved and subjecting them to the highest possible standards of public justification and deliberation. Overcoming the anticipatory obstruction paradox and the procedural self-entrenchment paradox is therefore essential not only for the success of reconstruction but also for its constitutional and democratic legitimacy. The best solution, for all, including the Hungarian people and all constitutional democracies that would pursue democratic and constitutional renewal, however, would still be for the affected constitutional office holders to take some responsibility and resign.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-removal-of-key-office-holders/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The Removal of Key Office Holders</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-09T15:11:08+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Tímea Drinóczi</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-09T15:11:08+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="anticipatory obstruction paradox"/>

	<category term="constitutional amendment"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="key office holders"/>

	<category term="magyar"/>

	<category term="orban"/>

	<category term="paradox"/>

	<category term="self-entrenchment paradox"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-09:/289944</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/afd-baurecht/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Schöner bauen, deutscher werden?</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Warum sind deutsche St&auml;dte so h&auml;sslich? Warum wirken ihre Innenst&auml;dte und Vorst&auml;dte so austauschbar?...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/warum-sind-deutsche-staedte-so-haesslich-13747258.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Warum sind deutsche St&auml;dte so h&auml;sslich?</a> Warum wirken ihre Innenst&auml;dte und Vorst&auml;dte so austauschbar? Bewusst oder unbewusst besch&auml;ftigen diese Fragen nicht nur Stadtplanerinnen und Architektinnen, sondern auch viele B&uuml;rger*innen.&nbsp;Es handelt sich keineswegs blo&szlig; um Expertenprobleme der Stadtplanung.&nbsp;Die AfD in Sachsen-Anhalt greift diese Themen auf und fordert, dass &ouml;ffentliche Geb&auml;ude von der Mehrheit der Bev&ouml;lkerung als sch&ouml;n empfunden werden und &bdquo;historische Identit&auml;t&ldquo; widerspiegeln m&uuml;ssen. Das Baurecht ist allt&auml;glich pr&auml;sent und scheinbar unpolitisch. Doch genau dort verhandelt die AfD nun ein identit&auml;tspolitisches Projekt, das &uuml;ber Fragen st&auml;dtebaulicher Gestaltung hinausweist: Die AfD will mit dem Baurecht keine Nutzungskonflikte regeln, sondern es politisieren und als Instrument kultureller Selbstvergewisserung nutzen.</p>
<h2>Kultur und Integration im AfD-&bdquo;Regierungsprogramm&ldquo;</h2>
<p>Im <a href="https://afd-regierungsprogramm.de/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Kapitel &bdquo;Kultur und Integration&ldquo;</a> ihres sogenannten Regierungsprogramms&nbsp;wirft die AfD zun&auml;chst &ndash; in gewohnter Vereinfachung komplexer Sachverhalte &ndash; nahezu alle gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen zusammen:&nbsp;Einwanderungspolitik, Klimapolitik, Familienpolitik, Bildungspolitik und Finanzpolitik &ndash; all diese Politikfelder und ihre Probleme sind laut der AfD Symptome eines tieferliegenden deutschen Minderwertigkeitskomplexes. Deutschland, so ihre Diagnose, leide unter einem &Uuml;berschuss an Schuldkomplexen und &bdquo;Nationalmasochismus&ldquo; sowie unter einem Mangel an Nationalstolz. Dagegen k&uuml;ndigt das Programm eine neue patriotische Kulturpolitik an, die diese angebliche deutsche &bdquo;Identit&auml;tsst&ouml;rung&ldquo; heilen soll. Das sei auch entscheidend, um Ausl&auml;nder*innen zu integrieren, denn: &bdquo;Welcher vern&uuml;nftige und stabile T&uuml;rke oder Syrer will denn zu einem von Selbsthass geplagten, zerknirschten Regenbogen-Deutschen werden?&ldquo;</p>
<p>Bemerkenswert ist dabei weniger die kulturpolitische Grundierung selbst.&nbsp;Sie und ihre Formeln geh&ouml;ren inzwischen zum Standardrepertoire der AfD. Die Partei findet aber immer mehr politische Anschlussstellen auf der Suche nach einer neuen deutschen Identit&auml;t. Neben Formeln wie &bdquo;Vern&uuml;nftiges Deutsch durchsetzen!&ldquo; oder &bdquo;Nein zu Muezzin und Minarett!&ldquo; greift die AfD eine Forderung auf, die zun&auml;chst fast harmlos wirkt: &bdquo;Sch&ouml;ner bauen!&ldquo; Unter dieser &Uuml;berschrift formuliert die AfD Sachsen-Anhalt folgenden Vorschlag:</p>
<blockquote><p>&bdquo;&Ouml;ffentliche Geb&auml;ude, die nach 1990 in Sachsen-Anhalt errichtet wurden, sind oft von einer au&szlig;erordentlichen H&auml;sslichkeit. [&hellip;] Wir werden dem ein Ende bereiten, indem wir der Bauordnung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt (BauO LSA) eine Richtlinie einf&uuml;gen, die vorschreibt, dass jedes Bauobjekt, bei dem das Land oder eine Kommune Tr&auml;ger ist und das einem &ouml;ffentlichen Zweck dient, eine anerkannte Bautradition aufzugreifen hat. Traditionslose Konstruktionen sind zu vermeiden, regionale Materialien von hoher Langlebigkeit zu bevorzugen.&ldquo;</p></blockquote>
<h2>Verfassungsrechtliche Bedenken</h2>
<p>Dieser Vorschlag bleibt bislang programmatisch und ohne weitere gesetzgeberische Ausgestaltung ist eine genauere rechtliche Pr&uuml;fung schwer. Die Pflicht, bei &ouml;ffentlichen Bauten eine anerkannte Bautradition einzuhalten, st&ouml;&szlig;t aber auf erhebliche verfassungsrechtliche Bedenken.</p>
<p>Zum einen ber&uuml;hrt eine solche landesweite Pauschalvorgabe die kommunale Planungshoheit (Art. 28 Abs. 2 GG), da sie den St&auml;dten und Gemeinden teilweise ihren Spielraum nehmen k&ouml;nnte, eigene st&auml;dtebauliche Identit&auml;ten und Gestaltungsleitbilder zu entwickeln. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht h&auml;lt sich in Bezug auf die kommunale Planungshoheit zur&uuml;ck und erkennt Einschr&auml;nkungen der Planungshoheit grunds&auml;tzlich an, soweit <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/2001/05/ks20010507_2bvk000100.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&bdquo;&uuml;ber&ouml;rtliche Interessen von h&ouml;herem Gewicht&ldquo;</a> den Eingriff erfordern. Ob ein solches &uuml;ber&ouml;rtliches Interesse hier vorliegt, l&auml;sst sich bezweifeln. Dar&uuml;ber hinaus wirft der Vorschlag kompetenzrechtliche Fragen auf. Zwar verf&uuml;gen die L&auml;nder im Bauordnungsrecht &uuml;ber Gestaltungsspielr&auml;ume und k&ouml;nnen gestalterische Anforderungen vorsehen. Ob weitreichende Stilvorgaben aber noch zum Bauordnungsrecht geh&ouml;ren oder nicht vielmehr bauplanungsrechtlicher Natur sind und damit im Kompetenzbereich des Bundesgesetzgebers liegen, ist fraglich.</p>
<p>Dazu kommen vergaberechtliche Fragen. Der Staat darf zwar Qualit&auml;ts- und Gestaltungskriterien vorgeben. Problematisch k&ouml;nnte dies jedoch werden, soweit &auml;sthetische Vorgaben den Wettbewerb in intransparenter oder sachlich schwer begr&uuml;ndbarer Weise verengen. Hinzu treten rechtsstaatliche Bedenken: Der Begriff der &bdquo;anerkannten Bautradition&ldquo; bleibt unbestimmt. Wer bestimmt, welche Tradition anerkannt ist, welche historischen Epochen dazugeh&ouml;ren und welche nicht? Schlie&szlig;lich sind auch Ber&uuml;hrungspunkte zur Kunstfreiheit nicht fernliegend, soweit staatliche Gestaltungsvorgaben bestimmte &auml;sthetische Formen nicht nur privilegieren, sondern andere ausschlie&szlig;en. Der Staat darf durchaus eigene gestalterische Leitbilder verfolgen. Problematisch wird das aber dort, wo er diffuse Vorstellungen historischer Identit&auml;t zum verbindlichen rechtlichen Ma&szlig;stab erhebt.</p>
<p>Die verfassungsrechtlichen Fragen sind damit allerdings nur die eine Seite des Problems. Sie erkl&auml;ren noch nicht, warum die AfD das Baurecht zum Gegenstand ihres kulturpolitischen Programms macht. Um dies zu verstehen, lohnt es sich, einen Schritt zur&uuml;ckzutreten und zu fragen, was die Partei hier &uuml;berhaupt unter &bdquo;Bautradition&ldquo; versteht. Auff&auml;llig ist n&auml;mlich, dass sie das Baurecht nicht als technisches Verwaltungsrecht behandelt, das Nutzungskonflikte ordnet, Gefahren abwehrt oder st&auml;dtebauliche Entwicklung steuert. Vielmehr erscheint es bei ihr als Instrument kultureller Selbstvergewisserung. Baurecht soll hier nicht mehr prim&auml;r Bauen ordnen, sondern Identit&auml;t produzieren.<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>1)</sup></a><span></span></span> Erst dieser Hintergrund macht verst&auml;ndlich, weshalb die AfD ausgerechnet Fragen von Fassaden, Bautraditionen und &bdquo;Sch&ouml;nheit&ldquo; pl&ouml;tzlich in ihrem politischen Programm aufgreift.</p>
<h2>Tradition der Moderne und Postmoderne</h2>
<p>Wo die AfD den eigentlichen Handlungsbedarf sieht &ndash; und was genau eine &bdquo;anerkannte Bautradition&ldquo; oder die damit verbundene historische Identit&auml;t sein soll &ndash;, wird erst auf den zweiten Blick ersichtlich.</p>
<blockquote><p>&bdquo;F&uuml;r sehr viel Geld werden nichtssagende Kl&ouml;tze oder andere kalt wirkende, traditionslose geometrische Formen in die Welt gesetzt. Zu nennen w&auml;re etwa die sogenannte &sbquo;Sinuskurve&lsquo; in Magdeburg, August-Bebel-Damm, oder das Geb&auml;ude der Nord-LB in Magdeburg am Domplatz. [&hellip;] &Ouml;ffentliche Geb&auml;ude m&uuml;ssen von der Mehrheit der Bev&ouml;lkerung als sch&ouml;n empfunden werden und m&uuml;ssen historische Identit&auml;t widerspiegeln.&ldquo;</p></blockquote>
<p>Jedem halbwegs architekturgeschichtlich Informierten d&uuml;rfte auffallen, dass hier etwas nicht aufgeht. Die Polemik gegen &bdquo;geometrische Formen&ldquo; und &bdquo;K&auml;lte&ldquo; verweist auf ein zentrales Element der klassischen Moderne. Diese zeichnet sich durch ihren Funktionalismus (<em>form follows function</em>), den Einsatz von Stahlbeton, Stahl und gro&szlig;fl&auml;chigen Glaselementen sowie einen Minimalismus der Form aus: durch Verzicht auf Ornamente, Stuck und verspielte Fassaden sowie die Konzentration auf glatte, kubische Bauk&ouml;rper und klare Linien.&nbsp;Die klassische Moderne entstand dabei keineswegs traditionslos. Das Bauhaus verstand sich zwar als Bruch mit Bautraditionen. Gerade dieser Bruch wurde jedoch selbst traditionsbildend. Die Idee einer Verbindung von Kunst, Technik und gesellschaftlicher Gestaltung pr&auml;gte Architektur, St&auml;dtebau und Design weltweit und wurde zu einem festen Bestandteil der Architekturgeschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts. Gerade Sachsen-Anhalt besitzt mit Dessau einen ihrer zentralen Wirkungsorte. Das (internationale) Bauhaus ist somit keine traditionslose Unterbrechung &bdquo;deutscher&ldquo; Architekturgeschichte, sondern eine ihrer wirkm&auml;chtigsten Phasen. Und zwar mit weltweiter Ausstrahlung, die wom&ouml;glich auch den AfD-Ausl&auml;nder-Idealtypus, sprich den &bdquo;stabilen und vern&uuml;nftigen T&uuml;rken oder Syrer&ldquo;, beeindrucken mag.</p>
<p>Dass es eigentlich nicht um Architektur geht, zeigt sich auch daran, dass nicht einmal das von der AfD Sachsen-Anhalt gew&auml;hlte Beispiel besonders gut zur Kritik (&bdquo;geometrische Form&ldquo;) passt. Gemeint ist das markante B&uuml;rogeb&auml;ude &bdquo;Sinuskurve&ldquo; im Magdeburger Stadtteil Rothensee am August-Bebel-Damm. Urspr&uuml;nglich nutzte das Windenergie-Unternehmen Enercon das Geb&auml;ude. Seine geschwungene Form wurde bewusst als Sinuswelle gestaltet &ndash; als technisches Symbol, das auf Strom- und Energietechnik verweist. Zugleich bleibt die Form mehrdeutig. Sie verweist gerade nicht auf den strengen Funktionalismus klassischer Moderne. Vielmehr spielt die Architektur mit Symbolik und Metaphorik. Gerade dieses Spiel mit Assoziationen verweist eher in Richtung postmoderner Architektur. Die Postmoderne reagierte bekanntlich auf die N&uuml;chternheit funktionalistischer Moderne und versuchte, Zeichen, Bedeutungen und historische Bez&uuml;ge wieder sichtbar zu machen, und ist insoweit selbst ein kritischer Kommentar zur geometrischen Form des modernen Formalismus.<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>2)</sup></a><span></span></span></p>
<h2>Es geht nicht um Bautradition</h2>
<p>Mit Bautradition meint die AfD hier also offenbar gerade nicht Bautradition. Denn selbstverst&auml;ndlich besteht die deutsche Architekturgeschichte nicht aus einer einzigen Epoche. Sie umfasst unter anderem mittelalterliche St&auml;dte, Gr&uuml;nderzeit, Bauhaus, serielles Bauen und Nachkriegszeit, modernen Funktionalismus ebenso wie die postmoderne Kommentierung und Kritik an ebenjenem.</p>
<p>Der Traditionsbegriff ist hier vielmehr ein politischer Filter. Er ist offen genug, um selbstverst&auml;ndlich zu wirken, und zugleich eng genug, um Ausschl&uuml;sse zu organisieren. Bautradition meint damit nicht die Vielfalt architektonischer Traditionen, sondern nur jene Traditionen, die sich in ein bestimmtes Identit&auml;tsverst&auml;ndnis einf&uuml;gen lassen. Der Blick in die Vergangenheit ist auff&auml;llig selektiv. Er richtet sich insbesondere auf idealisierte Vorstellungen einer vermeintlich intakten historischen Ordnung vor den Br&uuml;chen des 20. Jahrhunderts. Moderne, Nachkriegsarchitektur oder gar die &auml;sthetischen Experimente sp&auml;terer Epochen erscheinen demgegen&uuml;ber als Verfallsgeschichte. In diesem Sinne ist das Projekt tats&auml;chlich antimodern: nicht, weil es moderne Geb&auml;ude kritisiert, sondern weil es &uuml;ber die Architektur gesellschaftliche Pluralisierung zur&uuml;ckweisen m&ouml;chte. Es geht also darum, welche Traditionen als Ausdruck kollektiver Identit&auml;t gelten d&uuml;rfen.</p>
<h2>Beispiele: Garnisonskirche und Berliner Schloss</h2>
<p>Die AfD sucht damit Anschl&uuml;sse f&uuml;r eine rechte Identit&auml;tspolitik und tr&auml;gt das offen in ihrem Programm zur Schau. Denn Identit&auml;tspolitik ist nicht notwendigerweise ein &bdquo;linkes&ldquo; Projekt, sondern kann ebenso regressive und konservative Z&uuml;ge annehmen. Dann ist ihr Ausgangspunkt die Vorstellung einer kulturell homogenen Gemeinschaft, deren Identit&auml;t angeblich bedroht sei. Politik erscheint dann nicht als Aushandlung unterschiedlicher Interessen, sondern als Wiederherstellung einer verlorenen kulturellen Ordnung. Dass Bauprojekte zu Tr&auml;gern identit&auml;tspolitischer Konflikte werden, ist keineswegs neu. Der Architekt Philip Oswalt hat beispielsweise herausgearbeitet, wie sich hinter Debatten &uuml;ber Rekonstruktionen h&auml;ufig weitreichendere kulturpolitische Projekte verbergen.&nbsp;Die Diskussionen um die Potsdamer Garnisonskirche oder das Berliner Schloss wurden zu Projektionsfl&auml;chen gr&ouml;&szlig;erer Erz&auml;hlungen &uuml;ber Geschichte, Nation und Identit&auml;t.</p>
<p>Wie eng Rekonstruktionsprojekte teilweise mit bestimmten politischen Milieus verbunden sind, zeigt etwa, wie Dieter Stein, der Herausgeber der &bdquo;Jungen Freiheit&ldquo;, seine Spende f&uuml;r das Berliner Schloss 2005 <a href="https://archplus.net/en/neue-recherchen-zeigen-weitere-rechtslastige-spender-fuer-das-berliner-schlossprojekt/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">begr&uuml;ndete</a>:</p>
<blockquote><p>&bdquo;Die Widerst&auml;nde der deutschen Neurose sind zu brechen! Ein ganz neuer Enthusiasmus kann das Land erfassen, sich der Wiederherstellung wenigstens der Kerne der geschundenen deutschen Altst&auml;dte und Residenzen zuzuwenden und damit der Gesundung der deutschen Identit&auml;t. Deutschland braucht eine architektonische Renaissance, die die Seele seiner St&auml;dte und damit die Seele aller Deutschen gesunden l&auml;&szlig;t. Packen wir es an!&ldquo;</p></blockquote>
<p>Diese Formulierungen erinnern an die oben beschriebene vermeintliche deutsche Identit&auml;tsst&ouml;rung.&nbsp;Was darin aber auch erkennbar wird, ist die Selektivit&auml;t des Traditionsbegriffs: Die kolonialen Verstrickungen des Humboldt-Forums, das das rekonstruierte Schloss beherbergt, wurden ausf&uuml;hrlich thematisiert, <a href="https://www.humboldtforum.org/de/kolonialismus-und-kolonialitaet/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">auch durch das Humboldt-Forum selbst</a>. Zudem steht es an der Stelle, an der einst der Palast der Republik stand. Eine weitere Tradition, die nicht zu z&auml;hlen scheint. Die Rekonstruktion erscheint dadurch nicht mehr als blo&szlig;e R&uuml;ckkehr zum Historischen. Sie wird zum Instrument einer bestimmten Erz&auml;hlung &uuml;ber Geschichte.&nbsp;Was als Tradition sichtbar bleibt und was verschwindet, ist keine neutrale Entscheidung. Koloniale Verstrickungen, die Geschichte der DDR oder die Vielfalt unterschiedlicher Baukulturen geraten dadurch an den Rand, werden gleich ganz ausgel&ouml;scht oder musealisiert.&nbsp;Neben den Tr&uuml;mmern des Schlosses spr&uuml;hte ein scharfsinniger Sprayer vor Beginn der Bauarbeiten: <a href="https://pdr.humboldtforum.org/die-ddr-hats-nie-gegeben/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&bdquo;Die DDR hat&rsquo;s nie gegeben&ldquo;</a>.&nbsp;&bdquo;Sch&ouml;nheit&ldquo; hat ihren Preis.</p>
<h2>Trump als Vorbild</h2>
<p>Die AfD Sachsen-Anhalt gibt sich in ihrem Regierungsprogramm aber gar nicht erst mit dem Rest der Bundesrepublik ab, sondern verweist gleich auf die USA, genauer eine Executive Order aus der ersten Amtszeit von Donald Trump: <a href="https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-promoting-beautiful-federal-civic-architecture/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&bdquo;Promoting Beautiful Federal Civic Architecture&ldquo;</a> (&bdquo;Wir orientieren uns damit an einer von Donald Trump w&auml;hrend seiner ersten Amtszeit erlassenen Exekutivorder&ldquo;). Neue Bundesgeb&auml;ude sollten sich st&auml;rker an klassischen und traditionellen Formen orientieren. Ausdr&uuml;cklich verweist das Dekret auf Antike und Klassik und schlie&szlig;t dezidiert &bdquo;moderne&ldquo; und &bdquo;dekonstruktivistische&ldquo; Architektur aus. Dahinter liegt weniger die &auml;sthetische Pr&auml;ferenz selbst als der Anspruch des Staates, einen offiziellen Stil vorzugeben. Architektur sollte historische Kontinuit&auml;t, nationale Gr&ouml;&szlig;e und Nationalstolz sichtbar machen. Auch hier erscheint Architektur nicht als offener kultureller Prozess, sondern als Instrument politischer Ordnung.</p>
<h2>Antimoderne Ordnung oder demokratische Pluralit&auml;t?</h2>
<p>Die Referenz auf die Antike macht aber eine andere Qualit&auml;t von Architektur sichtbar, die auch hinter dem Gr&ouml;&szlig;enwahn diktatorischer &bdquo;Utopisierungsr&auml;ume&ldquo;<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>3)</sup></a><span></span></span> steckt. W&auml;hrend Trump in seinem Dekret eine Schein-Demokratisierung vornimmt, indem die &bdquo;general public&ldquo; entscheiden soll und damit explizit Expertenwissen von Architekt*innen ausschlie&szlig;t, liegt die eigentlich demokratische Qualit&auml;t der Architektur woanders: Architektur kann eine gemeinschaftsstiftende und ordnungsbildende Funktion haben. Sie ist nicht blo&szlig; sch&ouml;ne Fassade und sie ist auch keine Kunst wie andere K&uuml;nste. Geb&auml;ude organisieren R&auml;ume und schaffen Formen des Zusammenlebens. Architektur ist &bdquo;soziale Kunst&ldquo; (Adolf Behne). Statt der homogenen Polisgemeinschaften der Antike zeichnen sich heutige demokratische Gesellschaften gerade durch Pluralit&auml;t und vielf&auml;ltige Anforderungen und Herausforderungen (Nachhaltigkeit, Wirtschaftlichkeit, sozialer Wohnungsbau, Denkmalschutz etc.) aus. Die Aufgabe von Architektur &ndash; und des sie rahmenden Baurechts &ndash; besteht deshalb nicht darin, eine vermeintlich einheitliche historische Identit&auml;t sichtbar zu machen. Architektur muss diese Pluralit&auml;t nicht aufl&ouml;sen, sondern sichtbar machen. Gerade deshalb sollte Baukultur nicht blo&szlig; Vergangenheit reproduzieren, sondern Gegenwart aufnehmen und Zukunft erm&ouml;glichen. Wer Tradition bewahren will, darf sie deshalb nicht auf ein homogenes historisches Leitbild reduzieren. Sonst bleibt am Ende ausgerechnet von jener Geschichte, die verteidigt werden soll, nur eine Kulisse &uuml;brig.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<div> <div><p><span role="button" tabindex="0">References</span><span role="button" tabindex="0">[<a>+</a>]</span></p></div> <div><table><caption>References</caption> <tbody> 

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>1</a></th> <td>Noch deutlich wird das im geplanten <a href="https://afd-mv.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/AfD-Regierungsprogramm-zur-Landtagswahl-September-2026.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&bdquo;Regierungsprogramm&ldquo;</a> (S. 89) der AfD im Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, demzufolge bei &ouml;ffentlichen Bauten auf einen &bdquo;Heimatstil&ldquo; geachtet werden soll.</td></tr>

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>2</a></th> <td>Charles Jencks, Die Sprache der postmodernen Architektur, 3. Aufl. 1988, 40 ff.</td></tr>

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>3</a></th> <td>Isabella Cramer, Utopie, Diktatur und Raum, Berlin 2023.</td></tr>

 </tbody> </table> </div></div><p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/afd-baurecht/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sch&ouml;ner bauen, deutscher werden?</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-09T08:11:29+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Samira Akbarian</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-09T08:11:29+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="afd"/>

	<category term="architektur"/>

	<category term="bauordnungsrecht"/>

	<category term="baurecht"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="identitätspolitik"/>

	<category term="sachsen-anhalt"/>

	<category term="sachsen-anhalt und mecklenburg-vorpommern"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-09:/289922</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/52-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Umstrittene BAföG-Reform: Die vergessene sozialversicherungsrechtliche Wechselwirkung – Wie Kranken- und Pflegeversicherung von einer BAföG-Erhöhung profitieren</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von MATTHIAS KNEISSL Die Bundesregierung plant eine deutliche Erh&ouml;hung der BAf&ouml;G-S&auml;tze, doch ob und ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von MATTHIAS KNEISSL Die Bundesregierung plant eine deutliche Erh&ouml;hung der BAf&ouml;G-S&auml;tze, doch ob und wann sie kommt, ist politisch umstritten: Bundesforschungsministerin Dorothee B&auml;r erkl&auml;rte &ouml;ffentlich, sie rechne nicht mehr mit einer zeitnahen Umsetzung, die SPD-Fraktion bestand auf der Verbindlichkeit der Koalitionsvereinbarung. Unabh&auml;ngig vom Ausgang dieses Streits bleibt eine Dimension unbeachtet: Jede Anhebung des BAf&ouml;G-Grundbedarfs erh&ouml;ht...</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-09T08:00:27+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gastautor</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-09T08:00:27+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="bafög-reform"/>

	<category term="mehrbelastung"/>

	<category term="recht aktuell"/>

	<category term="recht politisch"/>

	<category term="recht sozial"/>

	<category term="sozialpolitik"/>

	<category term="studentische krankenversicherung"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-09:/289918</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-existenzminimum-bleibt-unantastbar/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Das Existenzminimum bleibt unantastbar</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Der EuGH hat in seinem Urteil vom 4. Juni 2026 die K&uuml;rzung von Leistungen f&uuml;r Asylbewerber*innen, f&uuml;...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Der EuGH hat in seinem <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Urteil vom 4. Juni 2026</a> die K&uuml;rzung von Leistungen f&uuml;r Asylbewerber*innen, f&uuml;r die gem&auml;&szlig; einer Entscheidung des BAMF ein anderer Staat zust&auml;ndig ist (&bdquo;Dublin-Bescheid&ldquo;), f&uuml;r unvereinbar mit den Vorgaben des Unionsrechts erkl&auml;rt. Die Rechtslage in Deutschland sieht derzeit aber genau diese K&uuml;rzungen vor: Wenn ein anderes EU-Land zust&auml;ndig ist, sollen Asylsuchende ab der Zustellung des Bescheids grunds&auml;tzlich keine Leistungen mehr erhalten.</p>
<p>Die Regelung des <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1 Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a>, die diesen Leistungsentzug erm&ouml;glicht, ist nach dem Urteil unionsrechtswidrig und darf ab sofort nicht mehr angewendet werden. Der EuGH stellt das im Tenor ausdr&uuml;cklich fest. &nbsp;Die einschl&auml;gige Regelung der Aufnahmerichtlinie stehe einer nationalen Regelung entgegen &bdquo;nach der, wenn [&hellip;] ein anderer Mitgliedstaat zust&auml;ndig ist, und die Entscheidung &uuml;ber die &Uuml;berstellung in diesen anderen Mitgliedstaat vollziehbar ist, die dem betreffenden Antragsteller im Rahmen der Aufnahme gew&auml;hrten materiellen Leistungen eingeschr&auml;nkt werden&ldquo;.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFBqLenIEIE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Das Bundesinnenministerium hat trotzdem angek&uuml;ndigt, die Entscheidung auf diesen Aspekt hin vertieft pr&uuml;fen zu wollen</a>. F&uuml;r die unionsrechtliche Bewertung dieser Frage besteht jedoch kein weiterer Kl&auml;rungsbedarf.</p>
<h2>Der Fall &bdquo;Landkreis Schweinfurt&ldquo;</h2>
<p>Der EuGH hatte in dem Fall eines afghanischen Asylbewerbers auf <a href="https://juris.curia.europa.eu/juris/showPdf.jsf?text=&amp;docid=292060&amp;pageIndex=0&amp;doclang=de&amp;mode=lst&amp;dir=&amp;occ=first&amp;part=1&amp;cid=48469" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Vorlage des Bundessozialgerichts vom 25. Juli 2024</a> zu entscheiden, ob die K&uuml;rzungen der Leistungen durch den Landkreis Schweinfurt mit dem Unionsrecht, konkret mit der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2013%3A180%3A0096%3A0116%3ADE%3APDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Aufnahmerichtlinie aus dem Jahr 2013</a>, vereinbar sind.</p>
<p>Der Landkreis Schweinfurt hatte die Leistungen f&uuml;r den Zeitraum vom 1. Januar 2022 bis zum 23. Februar 2022 teilweise entzogen, nachdem das BAMF seinen Antrag als unzul&auml;ssig abgelehnt hatte. Grund f&uuml;r die Ablehnung war, dass der betroffene Afghane bereits einen Asylantrag in Rum&auml;nien gestellt hatte, weshalb nach der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32013R0604" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dublin-III-Verordnung</a> Rum&auml;nien f&uuml;r die Pr&uuml;fung seines Schutzgesuchs zust&auml;ndig sei. Die K&uuml;rzung der Leistungen wurde damit begr&uuml;ndet, dass das BAMF die &Uuml;berstellung nach Rum&auml;nien angeordnet hatte, womit nach der damaligen Rechtslage (&sect; 1a Abs. 7 AsylbLG(alt)) grunds&auml;tzlich nur noch eingeschr&auml;nkte Leistungen gew&auml;hrt werden durften. Im konkreten Fall waren dem Betroffenen Leistungen des Grundbedarfs nach <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__3.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 3 AsylbLG</a> teilweise sowie Leistungen f&uuml;r besondere Bedarfe im Einzelfall nach <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__6.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 6 AsylbLG</a> vollst&auml;ndig entzogen worden.</p>
<p>Dagegen klagte der Betroffene. Das Bundessozialgericht (BSG) hatte Zweifel an der Vereinbarkeit der Regelungen mit dem Unionsrecht und legte den Fall dem EuGH vor. Es wollte insbesondere wissen, ob die Leistungsk&uuml;rzungen mit Art. 17 und Art. 20 der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2013%3A180%3A0096%3A0116%3ADE%3APDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2013/33</a> vereinbar sind. Au&szlig;erdem stellte das BSG die Frage, ob Leistungsk&uuml;rzungen in Wiederaufnahmeverfahren, also in F&auml;llen, in denen die betroffene Person bereits in einem anderen EU-Mitgliedstaat einen Asylantrag gestellt hat, damit gerechtfertigt werden k&ouml;nnen, dass bei Folgeverfahren grunds&auml;tzlich geringere Leistungen zul&auml;ssig sind.</p>
<h2>Die Entscheidung</h2>
<p>Der EuGH stellt in seiner Entscheidung zun&auml;chst klar, dass das Unionsrecht aktuell keine Regelung enth&auml;lt, die Leistungsk&uuml;rzungen aufgrund eines Dublin-Bescheids erlaubt, weshalb Art. 17 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2013%3A180%3A0096%3A0116%3ADE%3APDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2013/33</a> einer nationalen Regelung entgegensteht, die solche Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen vorsieht.</p>
<p>Der Gerichtshof weist darauf hin, dass der von der Aufnahmerichtlinie geforderte &bdquo;angemessene Lebensstandard&ldquo; nur dann gew&auml;hrleistet ist, wenn die elementaren Bed&uuml;rfnisse befriedigt werden.</p>
<p>Die Entscheidung beruht auf dem Gedanken, dass allen asylsuchenden Personen, &uuml;ber deren Schutzbedarf noch nicht entschieden wurde, grunds&auml;tzlich dieselben Leistungen zu gew&auml;hren sind. Dies gilt auch dann, wenn sich die betroffene Person in einem Staat befindet, der nicht f&uuml;r die Pr&uuml;fung des Schutzbedarfs zust&auml;ndig ist. Bis zur faktischen &Uuml;berstellung muss auch der unzust&auml;ndige Staat den vorgesehenen &bdquo;angemessenen Lebensstandard&ldquo; sichern. Dies gilt auch f&uuml;r Personen in sog. Wiederaufnahmeverfahren, also f&uuml;r &nbsp;F&auml;lle, in denen die asylsuchende Person vor der Antragstellung in Deutschland bereits in einem anderen EU-Staat einen Asylantrag gestellt hat &ndash; jedenfalls dann, wenn der andere EU-Staat noch keine endg&uuml;ltige Entscheidung &uuml;ber den Asylantrag getroffen hat.</p>
<p>Die diesbez&uuml;glichen Feststellungen des EuGH kommen nicht &uuml;berraschend, sondern waren angesichts der bisherigen <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/auf-konfrontationskurs-mit-dem-eugh/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Rechtsprechung des EuGH zur Sicherung des Existenzminimums von Schutzsuchenden generell und in Dublin-F&auml;llen speziell</a> bereits absehbar gewesen.</p>
<p>Bis zur tats&auml;chlichen &Uuml;berstellung sind Personen, die sich im Dublin-Verfahren befinden, also mit allen anderen asylsuchenden Personen gleichzustellen. Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen sind nur in vorgesehenen Ausnahmef&auml;llen, etwa bei gewaltt&auml;tigen St&ouml;rungen des Betriebs der Unterkunft, m&ouml;glich und ein kompletter Leistungsentzug kommt nur infrage, wenn die asylsuchende Person &uuml;ber eigene finanzielle Mittel verf&uuml;gt.</p>
<p>Aufgrund der klaren Worte des EuGH, dass die deutsche Regelung mit Unionsrecht nicht vereinbar ist, besteht f&uuml;r die Beh&ouml;rden ab sofort eine Verpflichtung, die Leistungen nach dem Asylbewerberleistungsgesetz ohne Einschr&auml;nkungen zu gew&auml;hren, auch f&uuml;r Personen, die einen Dublin-Bescheid mit &Uuml;berstellungsanordnung erhalten haben. Im Folgenden werden die Konsequenzen der Entscheidung f&uuml;r die aktuelle Rechtslage sowie f&uuml;r die Rechtslage nach dem Anwendungsbeginn der <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-des-gemeinsamen-europaischen-asylsystems/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">GEAS-Reform</a> am 12. Juni 2026 beleuchtet.</p>
<h2>Konsequenzen f&uuml;r Recht und Praxis in Deutschland</h2>
<p>Wie sich schon aus der Tatsache ergibt, dass das BSG den Fall dem EuGH vorgelegt hat, gab es in Deutschland schon vor der Entscheidung erhebliche Zweifel an der Rechtm&auml;&szlig;igkeit der Leistungsk&uuml;rzungen f&uuml;r Personen mit Dublin-Bescheid. Trotz dieser Zweifel wurde die seit August 2019 bestehende automatische Leistungseinschr&auml;nkung gem. &sect; 1a Abs. 7 AsylbLG(alt) im Oktober 2024 versch&auml;rft und durch die Regelung des <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1 Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a> ersetzt. Danach sind asylsuchende Personen ab Zustellung des Dublin-Bescheids vollst&auml;ndig von Leistungen nach dem AsylbLG ausgeschlossen, wenn das BAMF im Bescheid feststellt, dass die (selbstorganisierte) Ausreise in den zust&auml;ndigen Staat &bdquo;rechtlich und tats&auml;chlich m&ouml;glich ist&ldquo;. Mit der Umsetzung der GEAS-Reform wurde diese Regelung nochmals versch&auml;rft. F&uuml;r Verfahren, die nach dem 12. Juni 2026 beginnen, soll ein vollst&auml;ndiger Leistungsentzug ab Zustellung des Dublin-Bescheids quasi automatisch erfolgen.</p>
<p><em>Zust&auml;ndigkeit des Aufenthaltsstaates f&uuml;r die Leistungsgew&auml;hrung</em></p>
<p>Europarechtlich kommt es allerdings auf die Frage der tats&auml;chlichen Ausreisem&ouml;glichkeit, die viele deutsche Sozialgerichte bewogen hat, die Regelung des <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1 Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a> f&uuml;r nicht anwendbar zu erkl&auml;ren, nicht an. Der EuGH stellte klar, dass die Gew&auml;hrleistung des menschenw&uuml;rdigen Existenzminimums die Aufgabe des Staates ist, der die &Uuml;berstellung durchf&uuml;hren muss. Die anderweitige Auffassung der Bundesregierung, die eine Analogie zur rechtlichen Situation von Unionsb&uuml;rger*innen beinhaltet und den zust&auml;ndigen Staat als prim&auml;r verantwortlich f&uuml;r die Leistungsgew&auml;hrung ansieht, beruht &ndash; so der EuGH &ndash; &bdquo;auf einer unzutreffenden Auslegung&ldquo; der Funktion des Rechtsschutzes und der Entscheidung nach der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32013R0604" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dublin-III-Verordnung</a> (<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rn. 45</a>). Der Gerichtshof betont diesbez&uuml;glich (<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rn. 48</a>): &bdquo;Die Verpflichtung eines Mitgliedstaats, der eine &Uuml;berstellungsentscheidung gegen&uuml;ber einem Antragsteller erlassen hat, diesem im Rahmen der Aufnahme materielle Leistungen zu gew&auml;hren, endet folglich erst mit der tats&auml;chlichen &Uuml;berstellung in den ersuchten Mitgliedstaat.&ldquo;</p>
<p><em>Konsequenzen der Entscheidung f&uuml;r die aktuelle Rechtslage</em></p>
<p>Das Urteil stellt klar, dass nach der aktuellen Rechtslage asylsuchenden Personen auch nach einem Dublin-Bescheid &bdquo;Unterkunft, Verpflegung und Kleidung in Form von Sach- oder Geldleistungen oder Gutscheinen oder einer Kombination davon sowie Geldleistungen zur Deckung des t&auml;glichen Bedarfs&rdquo; zu gew&auml;hren sind, um f&uuml;r diese Personen einen &bdquo;angemessenen Lebensstandard&rdquo; zu gew&auml;hrleisten (Art. 17 Abs. 5 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2013%3A180%3A0096%3A0116%3ADE%3APDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2013/33</a>). Ein solcher &bdquo;angemessener&ldquo; Lebensstandard lasse sich &bdquo;ohne Ma&szlig;nahmen in Bezug auf Kleidung und Geldleistungen zur Deckung des t&auml;glichen Bedarfs nicht verwirklichen&ldquo; (<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rn. 60</a>).</p>
<p><em>Leistungsumfang</em></p>
<p>Die Leistungen f&uuml;r einen angemessenen Lebensstandard umfassen nach Auslegung des EuGH zwingend nicht nur Unterkunft und Verpflegung, sondern auch Kleidung und Geldleistungen zur Deckung des t&auml;glichen Bedarfs (Taschengeld). Letzteres ist erforderlich, um ein Minimum an Selbstbestimmung und Teilhabe zu gew&auml;hrleisten und &uuml;ber die blo&szlig;e Sicherung des physischen &Uuml;berlebens (&bdquo;Bett, Brot und Seife&ldquo;) hinauszugehen.</p>
<p>Die Mindestschwelle bildet dabei die Wahrung der Menschenw&uuml;rde. Diese erfordert mehr als die Sicherung des physischen &Uuml;berlebens. Der EuGH hat dabei das soziokulturelle Existenzminimum im Blick, wie <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rn. 62</a> verdeutlicht: &bdquo;Was zum anderen die Geldleistungen zur Deckung des t&auml;glichen Bedarfs betrifft, so sind solche Leistungen [&hellip;] notwendig, um einem Antragsteller auf internationalen Schutz ein Minimum an Selbstbestimmung zu verhelfen, da sie es ihm insbesondere erm&ouml;glichen, sich &uuml;ber Unterkunft, Verpflegung und Kleidung hinaus G&uuml;ter des t&auml;glichen Bedarfs und Verbrauchsg&uuml;ter des Haushalts zu beschaffen, die f&uuml;r seine elementaren Bed&uuml;rfnisse unverzichtbar sind [&hellip;]&ldquo;. Das unionsrechtlich zu gew&auml;hrende angemessene Existenzminimum ist demnach nicht auf reine &Uuml;berlebenssicherung beschr&auml;nkt, sondern umfasst ausdr&uuml;cklich auch Mobilit&auml;t (z.B. Fahrkarten f&uuml;r notwendige Wege), Kommunikation sowie gesellschaftliche Teilhabe.</p>
<p><em>M&ouml;glicher Nachzahlungsanspruch</em></p>
<p>Die bisher praktizierten Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen und erst recht ein vollst&auml;ndiger Leistungsentzug m&uuml;ssen sofort beendet werden, da die Beh&ouml;rden zu unionsrechtskonformen Verwaltungshandeln verpflichtet sind. Wurden Leistungen eingeschr&auml;nkt oder entzogen, besteht zudem ein Nachzahlungsanspruch. Dieser d&uuml;rfte allerdings nicht immer einfach zu beziffern sein, da viele Leistungen als Sachleistungen erbracht werden.</p>
<p>Der EuGH hat jedoch bereits in der Rechtssache <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/de/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62013CJ0079" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Saciri</em></a> festgehalten, dass die Nichtgew&auml;hrung einer Sachleistung dazu f&uuml;hrt, dass Geldleistungen gew&auml;hrt werden m&uuml;ssen. In dem Verfahren ging es um die Verweigerung einer Unterkunft bei &Uuml;berbelegung. Praktisch d&uuml;rfte es h&auml;ufig dennoch schwierig sein, den bestehenden Nachzahlungsanspruch gerichtlich geltend zu machen.</p>
<p><em>Rechtswidrige Unterbringung in Dublin-Zentren</em></p>
<p>Auch die aktuell in Hamburg und Brandenburg betriebenen &bdquo;Dublin-Zentren&ldquo; sind als genereller Aufenthaltsort f&uuml;r Personen in Dublin-Verfahren unionsrechtswidrig.</p>
<p>Eine Norm, die zus&auml;tzliche Bewegungseinschr&auml;nkungen f&uuml;r den Fall des Aufenthalts in unzust&auml;ndigen Staat vorsieht, existiert bisher nicht. Eine solche Regelung sieht erst die neue <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a> vor.</p>
<p>Der Aufenthalt in einem &bdquo;Dublin-Zentrum&rdquo; kann derzeit lediglich gem&auml;&szlig; Art. 7 Abs. 2 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2013%3A180%3A0096%3A0116%3ADE%3APDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2013/33</a> nach einer Einzelfallpr&uuml;fung angeordnet werden, &bdquo;wenn es f&uuml;r eine z&uuml;gige Bearbeitung und wirksame &Uuml;berwachung des betreffenden Antrags auf internationalen Schutz erforderlich ist.&ldquo;</p>
<p><em>Unanwendbarkeit der Normen des aktuellen AsylbLG</em></p>
<p>Mit dem Urteil des EuGH sind deutsche Beh&ouml;rden und Gerichte nun also verpflichtet, <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1 Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a>, der den Leistungsentzug nach Zustellung des Dublin-Bescheids vorsieht, und <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1a Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a>, der Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen vorsieht, wenn Deutschland nicht f&uuml;r die Pr&uuml;fung des Asylantrags zust&auml;ndig ist, unangewendet zu lassen.</p>
<p>Dies folgt aus der Verpflichtung der Mitgliedstaaten, die volle Wirksamkeit unionsrechtlicher Vorgaben jederzeit zu gew&auml;hrleisten und entgegenstehende Normen unangewendet zu lassen. Ein Zuwarten der Beh&ouml;rden auf weitere gerichtliche Verfahren im Einzelfall oder auf ein T&auml;tigwerden des Gesetzgebers ist unionsrechtlich nicht zul&auml;ssig.</p>
<h2>Auswirkungen auf die Rechtslage nach dem 12. Juni 2026</h2>
<p><em>Leistungsumfang bis zum Dublin-Bescheid</em></p>
<p>Der eben beschriebene &bdquo;angemessene Lebensstandard&ldquo; ist auch nach der ab dem 12. Juni 2026 geltenden Rechtslage gem&auml;&szlig; Art. 20 Abs. 1 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a> zu gew&auml;hrleisten. Eine Leistungseinschr&auml;nkung aufgrund des Aufenthalts im nichtzust&auml;ndigen Staat kommt bis zur Zustellung der &Uuml;berstellungsentscheidung, die nach Art. 42 Asyl- und Migrationsmanagement-Verordnung (<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a>) zu erfolgen hat, weiterhin nicht in Betracht. Art. 23 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a>, der neu die K&uuml;rzung oder den Entzug von Leistungen regelt, sieht keine M&ouml;glichkeit vor, die Leistungen aufgrund des Aufenthalts in einem unzust&auml;ndigen Staat vor der &Uuml;berstellungsentscheidung zu k&uuml;rzen oder zu entziehen.</p>
<p>Lediglich (zus&auml;tzliche) Beschr&auml;nkungen der Bewegungsfreiheit kommen gem. Art. 9 Abs. 1 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a> vor der Zustellung der &Uuml;berstellungsentscheidung bei einem Aufenthalt in einem anderen Staat als dem Staat, in dem sich die Person nach Art. 17 Abs. 4 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> aufhalten muss, infrage.</p>
<p>Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen w&auml;hrend des Zust&auml;ndigkeitsbestimmungsverfahrens, wie sie <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1a Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a> zumindest partiell, n&auml;mlich f&uuml;r F&auml;lle, in denen ein anderer Staat zust&auml;ndig ist, vorsieht, sind dementsprechend weiterhin rechtswidrig. Daher muss auch in Wiederaufnahmeverfahren nach Art. 41 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a>, in denen sich die Zust&auml;ndigkeit aus dem Eintrag in der Eurodac-Datenbank (vgl. Art. 16 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1358" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EurodacVO 2014/1358</a>) ergibt, <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1a Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a> in Zukunft unangewendet bleiben.</p>
<p><em>Leistungsumfang nach einem Dublin-Bescheid</em></p>
<p>Anders als bisher sieht Art. 21 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a> vor, dass ab der Zustellung eines Dublin-Bescheids &bdquo;die im Rahmen der Aufnahme gew&auml;hrten Vorteile gem&auml;&szlig; den Artikeln&nbsp;17&nbsp;bis&nbsp;20 der vorliegenden Richtlinie&ldquo; grunds&auml;tzlich nur im zust&auml;ndigen Staat gew&auml;hrt werden m&uuml;ssen.</p>
<p>Art. 18 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> stellt klar, dass dies nur gilt &bdquo;[s]ofern dem Antragsteller seine Pflichten und die Folgen einer Nichteinhaltung dieser Pflichten [&hellip;] mitgeteilt wurden&ldquo;; er also wusste, dass er grunds&auml;tzlich den Asylantrag im Ersteinreisestaat bzw. dem Staat, der einen Aufenthaltstitel oder ein Visum erteilt hat, h&auml;tte stellen m&uuml;ssen.</p>
<p>Art. 17 bis 20 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a> umfassen den Arbeitsmarktzugang, den Zugang zu weiterf&uuml;hrender Bildung, die medizinische Versorgung und die Grundleistungen. Der Schulbesuch hingegen muss etwa weiter m&ouml;glich sein (vgl. Art. 16 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a>). Damit ist ein vollst&auml;ndiger Entzug grunds&auml;tzlich ausgeschlossen.</p>
<p>Dar&uuml;ber hinaus setzen Art. 21 Abs. 1 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1346/oj/deu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AufnahmeRL 2024/1346</a> und Art. 18 Abs. 1 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> eine absolute Untergrenze f&uuml;r Einschr&auml;nkungen, da beide Normen wortlautgleich regeln, in jedem Fall &bdquo;einen Lebensstandard im Einklang mit dem Unionsrecht, einschlie&szlig;lich der Charta, und internationalen Verpflichtungen sicherzustellen.&ldquo;</p>
<p>Zudem muss nach Art. 18 Abs. 4 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> die Einschr&auml;nkung immer verh&auml;ltnism&auml;&szlig;ig sein. Insbesondere m&uuml;ssen &bdquo;die Mitgliedstaaten die individuellen Umst&auml;nde des Antragstellers, einschlie&szlig;lich der tats&auml;chlichen Gefahr von Grundrechtsverletzungen&ldquo; im zust&auml;ndigen Mitgliedstaat ber&uuml;cksichtigen. Ein m&ouml;glicher Leistungsentzug erfordert also eine Einzelfallentscheidung. F&uuml;r potenzielle Menschenhandelsopfer ist der Leistungsentzug gem. Art. 18 Abs. 3 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> vollst&auml;ndig ausgeschlossen.</p>
<p>Der Mindestlebensstandard ist dabei durch die Wahrung der Menschenw&uuml;rde gepr&auml;gt. Zu diesem insbesondere in den Urteilen <em>Saciri </em>und <em>Haqbin</em> bereits entwickelten Standard, der mindestens die &bdquo;elementarsten Bed&uuml;rfnisse&ldquo; umfasst, &auml;u&szlig;ert sich der EuGH auch im vorliegenden Urteil. Wie oben schon angedeutet, stellt der Gerichtshof klar, dass ein solcher menschenw&uuml;rdiger Lebensstandard mehr umfasst als das blo&szlig;e physische &Uuml;berleben, sondern auch grundlegende materielle Voraussetzungen eines w&uuml;rdevollen Alltags. Gerade Kleidung nimmt hierbei eine zentrale Rolle ein, da sie unmittelbar mit der menschlichen W&uuml;rde und der sozialen Sichtbarkeit einer Person verbunden ist (<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rn. 61</a>). Sie&nbsp;erf&uuml;llt dabei nicht nur eine funktionale, sondern auch eine soziale Funktion. Wer nicht &uuml;ber angemessene Kleidung verf&uuml;gt, ist im Alltag sichtbar von gesellschaftlicher Teilhabe ausgeschlossen.</p>
<p>In R<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62024CJ0621&amp;qid=1780663474688" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">n. 62</a> deutet der EuGH zudem an, dass auch gewisse Geldleistungen f&uuml;r die &bdquo;elementaren Bed&uuml;rfnisse unverzichtbar sind&ldquo;, f&uuml;hrt dies aber nicht weiter aus, so dass zu erwarten ist, dass die Frage welche Geldleistungen zur Wahrung der Menschenw&uuml;rde notwendig sind, Gegenstand k&uuml;nftiger Vorlageverfahren wird.</p>
<p><em>&Uuml;bergangsregelung &ndash; Zeitpunkt der Verpflichtungen</em></p>
<p>Die neuen Normen werden ab dem 12. Juni 2026 angewendet, sodass der Leistungsausschluss auch nur f&uuml;r Verfahren greift, in denen der Antrag in Deutschland nach dem 12. Juni 2026 gestellt wird. Das bedeutet, dass die neuen Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen nicht ab dem 12. Juni 2026 verh&auml;ngt werden d&uuml;rfen, sondern erst, wenn ein Aufnahme- oder Wiederaufnahmeverfahren nach den Regelungen der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> abgewickelt wurde (vgl. Art. 84 Abs. 2 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a> und Art. 13 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32025R2055" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO-Durchf&uuml;hrungsverordnung 2025/2055</a>).</p>
<h2>Fazit</h2>
<p>Die unmittelbare Folge des Urteils besteht darin, dass Leistungsk&uuml;rzungen und Leistungsausschl&uuml;sse gegen&uuml;ber Personen mit einem Dublin-Bescheid nicht mehr aufrechterhalten werden d&uuml;rfen, soweit dadurch der unionsrechtlich garantierte Mindeststandard unterschritten wird.</p>
<p>F&uuml;r alle nach der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32013R0604" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dublin-III-Verordnung</a> bearbeiteten Antr&auml;ge gilt derselbe unionsrechtliche Mindeststandard wie f&uuml;r alle anderen Asylsuchenden. Dieser geforderte &bdquo;angemessene Lebensstandard&rdquo; stellt dabei nicht die Obergrenze, sondern die Mindestanforderung dar, die in jedem Fall gewahrt werden muss.</p>
<p>Er gilt auch w&auml;hrend eines laufenden Dublin-Verfahrens nach der Neuregelung durch die <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a>, die ab dem 12. Juni 2026 gilt. Lediglich nach der Zustellung eines Bescheides ist die Situation zu differenzieren, weil dort individuell zu pr&uuml;fende Einschr&auml;nkungsm&ouml;glichkeiten bestehen, die durch die absolut geltende Verpflichtung eines menschenw&uuml;rdigen Lebensstandards begrenzt werden.</p>
<p>Auf die Frage der tats&auml;chlichen Ausreisem&ouml;glichkeit kommt es nicht an, da der Aufenthaltsstaat f&uuml;r die Leistungsgew&auml;hrung zust&auml;ndig ist. Dies gilt ebenfalls f&uuml;r die <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32024R1351" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AMMVO</a>.</p>
<p>Da sowohl die derzeitigen Regelungen des <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1 Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a> und des <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1a Abs. 4 AsylbLG</a> als auch die k&uuml;nftige gesetzliche Ausgestaltung den Vorgaben des EuGH nicht gen&uuml;gen, m&uuml;ssen sie unangewendet bleiben, bis der Gesetzgeber eine unionsrechtskonforme Regelung geschaffen hat. Dazu ist eine vertiefte Analyse der Unionsrechtskonformit&auml;t aller aktuellen und zuk&uuml;nftigen Einschr&auml;nkungsm&ouml;glichkeiten des <a href="https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/asylblg/__1a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&sect; 1a AsylbLG</a> erforderlich, soweit sie asylsuchende Personen betreffen. Aus dem Urteil folgt also nicht nur ein Anwendungsverbot unionsrechtswidriger Leistungsausschl&uuml;sse und Leistungseinschr&auml;nkungen, sondern auch ein gesetzgeberischer Anpassungsauftrag. Nach dem unionsrechtlichen Grundsatz der praktischen Wirksamkeit und dem sogenannten Normbereinigungsgebot d&uuml;rfen Vorschriften, die zu einer Unterschreitung des unionsrechtlich garantierten Mindeststandards f&uuml;hren, nicht aufrechterhalten werden. Der Gesetzgeber ist daher verpflichtet, die Rechtslage so auszugestalten, dass eine Verelendung der betroffenen Personen ausgeschlossen wird und das menschenw&uuml;rdige Existenzminimum jederzeit gesichert bleibt.</p>
<p>Praktisch bedeutet dies, dass Personen in einem Dublin-Verfahren bis zu einer unionsrechtskonformen Neuregelung nicht nur bis zum Erlass des Bescheides, sondern bis zur tats&auml;chlichen &Uuml;berstellung einen Anspruch auf die uneingeschr&auml;nkten Leistungen nach dem AsylbLG haben.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-existenzminimum-bleibt-unantastbar/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Das Existenzminimum bleibt unantastbar</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-09T07:34:46+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Constantin Hruschka</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-09T07:34:46+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="asylrecht"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="eugh"/>

	<category term="europa"/>

	<category term="existenzminimum"/>

	<category term="geas"/>

	<category term="leistungskürzungen"/>

	<category term="unionsrecht"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-08:/289893</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/second-annual-aspiring-free-speech.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Second Annual Aspiring Free Speech Scholars Workshop</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Eugene VolokhSecond Annual Aspiring Free Speech
Scholars Workshop&nbsp;jointly
sponsored by the Sand...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p></p><div>Eugene Volokh<a name="_Hlk212631048"><span face=""></span></a></div><div><a name="_Hlk212631048"></a><b><span face=""><br></span></b></div><div><span><a name="_Hlk212631048"></a><b><span face="">Second Annual Aspiring Free Speech
Scholars Workshop&nbsp;</span></b><span><span face="">jointly
sponsored by the Sandra Day O&rsquo;Connor College of Law (ASU)&nbsp;</span></span><span><span face="">and the Hoover Institution (Stanford University)<br></span></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><b><i><span face="">Because of a technical problem, any
submissions before June 4, 2026 were lost; please resubmit (or submit for the
first time) at the new URL listed below, </span></i></b><span face=""><a href="https://tinyurl.com/aspiring-free-speech-scholars" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://tinyurl.com/aspiring-free-speech-scholars</a></span></span></div><div><span><span face=""><p></p></span><span face=""><br></span><span face=""><a name="_Hlk212622607"></a>Are you a law student, judicial law clerk, lawyer, or
beginning academic hoping to publish a journal article on free speech law?
Would you like the opportunity to get advice about your draft from leading free
speech scholars?<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">If so, <b>send us your draft by Sunday, August 16, 2026</b>.
(This should still be a draft article, not an article that&rsquo;s already published
or expected to be published within six months.) We plan to select the
submissions that we think are particularly promising, and <b>invite their
authors to a workshop </b>where they can present their papers and get helpful
feedback on them.&nbsp;The workshop will be Saturday, October 24, 2026 (with
dinner the night before) at the Sandra Day O&rsquo;Connor College of Law in Phoenix.
We will inform the selected authors by Tuesday, September 8, 2026.<br></span><span face=""><span>&nbsp;<br></span></span><span face="">We have funds to pay for transportation and lodging for the
selected authors&rsquo; trips. Eligibility is <b>limited to people who have so far
published three or fewer law-related journal articles</b>.<br></span><span face="">&nbsp;<br></span><span face="">We also plan to <b>officially recognize</b> zero to three
of&nbsp;the top articles among those we review. If the authors wish, they can
also have their articles reviewed for publication in the Journal of Free Speech
Law (<a href="http://JournalOfFreeSpeechLaw.org" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://JournalOfFreeSpeechLaw.org</a>), presumably after they revise the
articles in light of the workshop feedback.<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">If you&rsquo;re interested, please submit your draft at http://tinyurl.com/aspiring-free-speech-scholars
(Google logon required). Please single-space, and format the article nicely, so
we can more easily read it.<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><b><span face="">Please do not include your name or law school affiliation</span></b><span face="">
in the document or document filename, and please do not include an author&rsquo;s
note thanking your advisors and others. Please make your filename be the title
of your article (or some recognizable subset of the article title). We want to
review the article drafts without knowing the authors&rsquo; identities.<br><p></p></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">If you have questions, please check <a href="http://tinyurl.com/aspiring-free-speech-faq" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://tinyurl.com/aspiring-free-speech-faq</a>;
if your question isn&rsquo;t answered there, please e-mail <a href="mailto:volokh@stanford.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">volokh@stanford.edu</a>.<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">Many thanks to the Stanton Foundation for its generous
support.<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">* * *<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">James Weinstein, Dan Cracchiolo Chair in Constitutional Law
and Professor of Law, Sandra Day O&rsquo;Connor College of Law, Arizona State
University<br></span><span face=""><p>&nbsp;<br></p></span><span face="">Eugene Volokh, Thomas M. Siebel Senior Fellow, Hoover
Institution (Stanford University), and Gary T. Schwartz Distinguished Professor
of Law Emeritus, UCLA School of Law<br></span><p>&nbsp;</p></span></div>
<br><p></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-08T21:49:00+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (Guest Blogger)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-08T21:49:00+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-08:/289880</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/politisiertes-prozessrecht/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Politisiertes Prozessrecht</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 23. April 2026 hat der Rat der Europ&auml;ischen Union mit der Verordnung (EU) 2026/506 das 20. Sankti...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 23. April 2026 hat der Rat der Europ&auml;ischen Union mit der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32026R0506&amp;qid=1779700123510" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verordnung (EU) 2026/506</a> das 20. Sanktionspaket gegen Russland verabschiedet. Zwischen Energie-, Finanz- und Handelsbeschr&auml;nkungen verbirgt sich ein prozessrechtliches Novum: Mit <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32026R0506&amp;qid=1779700123510" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Art. 11ca der Russland-Sanktionsverordnung</a> erh&auml;lt das Unionsrecht erstmals eine ausdr&uuml;cklich kodifizierte Anti-Suit Injunction. Die EU &uuml;bernimmt damit ein Instrument, das dem europ&auml;ischen Zivilverfahrensrecht lange fremd war, und setzt es als sanktionsrechtliche Gegenwaffe gegen russisches Prozess-Lawfare ein. Art. 11ca soll vertraglich vereinbarte Streitbeilegungsmechanismen vor russischer Prozessf&uuml;hrung sch&uuml;tzen. Zugleich st&ouml;&szlig;t die Norm aber an zwei Grenzen: Ihre praktische Wirksamkeit h&auml;ngt vom Zugriff auf Verm&ouml;genswerte ab; ihr Schutz von Schiedsvereinbarungen wirft die Frage auf, ob die Norm l&uuml;ckenlos an die unionsrechtlichen Kontrollanforderungen gegen&uuml;ber privater Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit ankn&uuml;pft.</p>
<h2><strong>Funktionsmechanismus von Anti-Suit Injunctions</strong></h2>
<p>Die Anti-Suit Injunction, kurz ASI, ist keine Anordnung an ein ausl&auml;ndisches Gericht. Sie richtet sich also nicht an den russischen Richter oder den russischen Staat, sondern an die Partei, die ein Verfahren vor russischen Gerichten betreibt. Ihr wird aufgegeben, ein solches Verfahren nicht einzuleiten, nicht fortzuf&uuml;hren oder zur&uuml;ckzunehmen. Die ASI wirkt damit nicht unmittelbar auf die fremde Gerichtsbarkeit, sondern mittelbar &uuml;ber die Disziplinierung der prozessf&uuml;hrenden Partei.</p>
<p>Zust&auml;ndigkeitskonflikte werden insoweit nicht &uuml;ber Anerkennungs-, Rechtsh&auml;ngigkeits- oder Vollstreckungsregeln gel&ouml;st, sondern durch ein in personam wirkendes gerichtliches Verbot, sich eines bestimmten Forums zu bedienen.</p>
<p>Art. 11ca der Russland-Sanktionsverordnung &uuml;bernimmt diesen Mechanismus nun ausdr&uuml;cklich in das Unionsrecht. Hat eine russische Partei vor einem russischen Gericht ein Verfahren im Zusammenhang mit einem von EU-Sanktionen betroffenen Vertrag angestrengt, obwohl eine ausschlie&szlig;liche Gerichtsstands- oder Schiedsklausel ein anderes Forum vorsieht, kann die betroffene EU-Partei vor einem Gericht eines Mitgliedstaats eine entsprechende Anordnung beantragen. Diese Anordnung soll die vereinbarte Gerichtsstands- oder Schiedsklausel absichern und die russische Partei verpflichten, das russische Verfahren nicht einzuleiten bzw. fortzuf&uuml;hren oder die hierf&uuml;r erforderlichen Prozesshandlungen vorzunehmen. Wird die Anordnung missachtet, sieht Art. 11ca finanzielle Sanktionen vor, die zugunsten der betroffenen EU-Partei zu zahlen sind.</p>
<p>Anlass f&uuml;r die Einf&uuml;hrung der unionsrechtlichen ASI ist die russische Prozessgesetzgebung. Art. 248.1 und 248.2 des russischen Arbitration Procedure Code erm&ouml;glichen russischen Gerichten, trotz entgegenstehender Schieds- oder Gerichtsstandsklauseln die Zust&auml;ndigkeit f&uuml;r sanktionsbezogene Streitigkeiten zu beanspruchen und gegen EU-Unternehmen erhebliche Geldbu&szlig;en zu verh&auml;ngen, wenn diese die russische Zust&auml;ndigkeit nicht akzeptieren. Art. 11ca ist insoweit eine gezielte Antwort auf russisches Prozess-Lawfare: Wo russische Gerichte vertraglich vereinbarte Streitbeilegungsmechanismen neutralisieren, sollen mitgliedstaatliche Gerichte diese nun aktiv sch&uuml;tzen k&ouml;nnen.</p>
<h2><strong>Anti-Suit Injunctions als unionsrechtliches Novum</strong></h2>
<p>Art. 11ca ist deshalb bemerkenswert, weil die Anti-Suit Injunction dem europ&auml;ischen Zivilverfahrensrecht lange fremd, ja systemwidrig erschien. Innerhalb des europ&auml;ischen Justizraums beruht die Zust&auml;ndigkeitsordnung auf gegenseitigem Vertrauen: Jedes angerufene Gericht pr&uuml;ft seine Zust&auml;ndigkeit selbst; Fehlentscheidungen werden &uuml;ber Rechtsmittel, Anerkennungs- und Vollstreckungsregeln aufgefangen. In den Rs.&nbsp;<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:62002CJ0159" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Turner v Grovit</em>&nbsp;</a>und&nbsp;<a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/affair?lang=de&amp;sort=AFF_NUM-DESC&amp;searchTerm=%22C-185%2F07%22&amp;publishedId=C-185%2F07" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>West Tankers</em>&nbsp;</a>stand die Anti-Suit Injunction deshalb f&uuml;r ein Misstrauen, das der Binnenjustizraum gerade institutionell vermeiden sollte.</p>
<p>Art. 11ca operiert jedoch nicht innerhalb dieses Vertrauensraums. Die Norm richtet sich gegen ein russisches Prozessregime, das sanktionsbezogene Streitigkeiten trotz entgegenstehender Gerichtsstands- oder Schiedsklauseln an sich zieht und damit privatautonome Streitbeilegungsmechanismen entwertet. Die unionsrechtliche ASI ist deshalb weniger ein allgemeiner Kurswechsel des europ&auml;ischen Prozessrechts als eine gezielte au&szlig;enpolitische Ausnahme: Wo gegenseitiges Vertrauen nicht vorausgesetzt werden kann, setzt das Unionsrecht auf kontrolliertes Misstrauen.</p>
<p>Gerade darin liegt aber die Ambivalenz der Norm. Art. 11ca &uuml;bernimmt ein machtvolles Instrument aus dem Arsenal prozessualer Gegenwehr, ohne dessen Durchsetzungs- und Kontrollbedingungen vollst&auml;ndig zu europ&auml;isieren. Die Vorschrift wirft daher zwei Fragen auf: Erstens, ob eine ASI ohne sicheren Zugriff auf Verm&ouml;genswerte praktisch Druck entfalten kann. Zweitens, ob der Schutz von Schiedsvereinbarungen koh&auml;rent ist, wenn die unionsrechtliche Akzeptanz privater Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit zugleich von wirksamer Kontrolle am Ma&szlig;stab des EU-Rechts abh&auml;ngt.</p>
<h2><strong>Vollstreckungsdefizit: finanzielle Sanktionen ohne sicheren Zugriff</strong></h2>
<p>Art. 11ca &uuml;bernimmt zwar die Logik einer ASI, nicht aber zwingend ihre Durchsetzungsarchitektur. Im common-law-Kontext beruht die Wirksamkeit einer Anti-Suit Injunction regelm&auml;&szlig;ig auch auf dem Risiko, wegen <em>contempt of court </em>sanktioniert zu werden.<em> Contempt of Court</em>&nbsp;meint die Missachtung des Gerichts, wenn eine Partei trotz eines gerichtlichen Verbots ein ausl&auml;ndisches Verfahren einleitet oder fortsetzt. Diese Missachtung kann mit empfindlichen Zwangsmitteln geahndet werden, etwa Ordnungsgeld, Verm&ouml;gensbeschlagnahmen oder sogar Haftstrafen. Art. 11ca w&auml;hlt einen anderen Weg: Die Missachtung der Anordnung f&uuml;hrt lediglich zu finanziellen Sanktionen, die nicht an die Staatskasse, sondern an die gegnerische EU-Partei zu zahlen sind.</p>
<p>Die ASI erzeugt aber nur dann praktischen Druck, wenn die gegnerische EU-Partei die finanzielle Sanktion auch realisieren kann. Daf&uuml;r braucht es Verm&ouml;genswerte, auf die ein mitgliedstaatliches Gericht oder ein vollstreckungsbereiter Drittstaat tats&auml;chlich zugreifen kann. Hat die russische Partei keine greifbaren Verm&ouml;genswerte in der EU und l&auml;sst sich die Sanktion auch in Drittstaaten nicht vollstrecken, droht die unionsrechtliche ASI zu einem <a href="https://www.hoganlovells.com/en/publications/-eus-sanctions-package-sharpening-the-eus-arbitration-toolkit-against-retaliatory-russian-litigation" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">blo&szlig;en <em>paper remedy</em></a> zu werden. Ihre Effektivit&auml;t h&auml;ngt daher nicht nur von der gerichtlichen Anordnung ab, sondern von der geographischen Belegenheit und rechtlichen Zug&auml;nglichkeit des Schuldnerverm&ouml;gens.</p>
<p>Diese Schw&auml;che wird durch das Sanktionsrecht selbst noch versch&auml;rft. Gerade in den F&auml;llen, in denen Art. 11ca besonders relevant ist, kann der Adressat der finanziellen Sanktion eine gelistete Person oder ein gelistetes Unternehmen sein. Dann sind etwaige Verm&ouml;genswerte in der EU regelm&auml;&szlig;ig eingefroren. Damit ist der Zugriff auf diese Verm&ouml;genswerte sanktionsrechtlich blockiert, solange keine einschl&auml;gige Ausnahme oder beh&ouml;rdliche Genehmigung greift.</p>
<p>Darin liegt ein erster Konstruktionswiderspruch: Der Unionsgesetzgeber schafft ein monet&auml;res Druckmittel, dessen naheliegende Vollstreckungsmasse zugleich durch das eigene <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2014/269/oj/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Asset-Freeze-Regime</a> blockiert sein kann. Zwar hat das 20. Sanktionspaket punktuelle Freigabemechanismen geschaffen; so k&ouml;nnen eingefrorene Gelder unter bestimmten Voraussetzungen zur <a href="https://www.freshfields.com/en/our-thinking/blogs/risk-and-compliance/the-eus-evolving-russian-sanctions-framework-what-the-20th-sanctions-package-me-102ms8k" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Deckung von Schiedsverfahrenskosten freigegeben</a> werden. F&uuml;r die Befriedigung finanzieller Sanktionen nach Art. 11ca er&ouml;ffnet die Verordnung aber kein ebenso klares Vollstreckungsfenster. Die EU bewaffnet ihre Gerichte daher mit einer ASI, stattet diese aber nicht durchgehend mit einem funktionsf&auml;higen Vollstreckungsarm aus.</p>
<h2><strong>Koh&auml;renzdefizit: Schiedsvereinbarungen sch&uuml;tzen, Schiedsgerichte kontrollieren?</strong></h2>
<p>Damit ist das Vollstreckungsproblem nur die erste Schw&auml;che von Art. 11ca. Die zweite offene Flanke ist die <a href="https://www.hoganlovells.com/en/publications/-eus-sanctions-package-sharpening-the-eus-arbitration-toolkit-against-retaliatory-russian-litigation" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Koh&auml;renz</a> der Anti-Suit Injunction: Art. 11ca sch&uuml;tzt nicht nur Gerichtsstandsklauseln zugunsten mitgliedstaatlicher Gerichte, sondern auch Schiedsklauseln. F&uuml;r Gerichtsstandsklauseln ist die unionsrechtliche Logik vergleichsweise klar: Russische Gerichte sollen in sanktionsbezogenen Streitigkeiten nicht an die Stelle eines vereinbarten mitgliedstaatlichen Gerichts treten, das EU-Sanktionsrecht achtet. Bei Schiedsklauseln liegt die Sache anders. Denn das Unionsrecht behandelt Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit gerade nicht als vorbehaltlos gleichwertiges Ersatzforum. Vielmehr akzeptiert es Schiedsverfahren nur insoweit, als die Autonomie des Unionsrechts gewahrt bleibt.</p>
<p>Diese unionsrechtliche Vorbehaltsposition hat der EuGH im Investitionsschiedskontext in <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A62016CJ0284" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Achmea</em></a> und <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document?source=document&amp;text=&amp;docid=245528&amp;pageIndex=0&amp;doclang=DE&amp;mode=lst&amp;dir=&amp;occ=first&amp;part=1&amp;cid=8831192" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Komstroy</em></a> deutlich formuliert. Die Entscheidungen betreffen nicht die gew&ouml;hnliche Handelsschiedsgerichtsbarkeit, sondern intra-EU-investitionsschiedsrechtliche Konstellationen. In <em>Achmea</em> erkl&auml;rte der EuGH eine Schiedsklausel in einem intra-EU-Investitionsschutzabkommen f&uuml;r unionsrechtswidrig. Entscheidend war, dass ein EU-Investor und ein Mitgliedstaat Streitigkeiten mit m&ouml;glichem EU-Rechtsbezug vor ein Schiedsgericht bringen konnten, das nicht Teil des Gerichtssystems der Union ist und dem EuGH keine Fragen nach Art. 267 AEUV vorlegen kann. Dadurch sah der EuGH die einheitliche Auslegung des Unionsrechts und sein Letztentscheidungsmonopol gef&auml;hrdet. In <em>Komstroy</em> &uuml;bertrug er diese Logik auf intra-EU-Schiedsverfahren auf Grundlage des Energiecharta-Vertrags. Zwar sind <em>Achmea</em> und <em>Komstroy</em> nicht ohne Weiteres auf die Handelsschiedsgerichtsbarkeit &uuml;bertragbar, die Entscheidungen lassen aber auf einen allgemeinen Grundsatz schlie&szlig;en: Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit wird unionsrechtlich problematisch, wenn Streitigkeiten mit m&ouml;glichem EU-Rechtsbezug einem Spruchk&ouml;rper &uuml;bertragen werden, der nicht in das Gerichtssystem der Union eingebunden ist, dem EuGH keine Fragen nach Art. 267 AEUV vorlegen kann und dessen Entscheidungen keiner hinreichenden gerichtlichen Kontrolle am Ma&szlig;stab des Unionsrechts unterliegen. Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit wird unionsrechtlich dort verd&auml;chtig, wo sie den Letztzugriff des EuGH auf die Auslegung des Unionsrechts leerlaufen l&auml;sst.</p>
<p>Genau an diese Kontrollfrage kn&uuml;pft nun auch im Sanktionsrecht die laufende Rs. <em>Reibel an</em>. Dort geht es um die Frage, ob Streitigkeiten aus sanktionsbetroffenen Vertr&auml;gen &uuml;berhaupt vor Schiedsgerichte gebracht werden d&uuml;rfen. Der zentrale Punkt ist die No-Claims-Clause des Art. 11 der Russland-Sanktionsverordnung. Sie verhindert vereinfacht gesagt, dass bestimmte russische oder mit Russland verbundene Parteien Anspr&uuml;che daraus herleiten k&ouml;nnen, dass ein Vertrag wegen EU-Sanktionen nicht erf&uuml;llt wurde.</p>
<p>Entscheidet ein Schiedsgericht &uuml;ber solche Anspr&uuml;che, stellt sich die Frage, wie gew&auml;hrleistet bleibt, dass das Schiedsgericht die No-Claims-Clause und damit EU-Sanktionsrecht beachtet. Die <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/site/upload/docs/application/pdf/2026-02/cp260023en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Schlussantr&auml;ge des Generalanwalts</a> in <em>Reibel</em> beantworten dies nicht mit einem Verbot der Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit, sondern setzen auf nachgelagerte Kontrolle: Schiedsverfahren k&ouml;nnen zul&auml;ssig sein, solange staatliche Gerichte sp&auml;ter pr&uuml;fen k&ouml;nnen, ob der Schiedsspruch mit EU-Sanktionsrecht und dem unionsrechtlichen ordre public vereinbar ist.</p>
<p>Diese Kontrolle funktioniert bei gew&ouml;hnlicher Handelsschiedsgerichtsbarkeit &uuml;ber die nationalen Schiedsverfahrensrechte. In Deutschland kann ein inl&auml;ndischer Schiedsspruch etwa nach &sect; 1059 Abs. 2 Nr. 2 lit. b ZPO aufgehoben werden, wenn seine Anerkennung oder Vollstreckung dem <em>ordre public</em> widerspricht. Bei ausl&auml;ndischen Schiedsspr&uuml;chen l&auml;uft die Kontrolle &uuml;ber &sect; 1061 ZPO in Verbindung mit Art. V Abs. 2 lit. b des New Yorker &Uuml;bereinkommens. Auch dort kann Anerkennung und Vollstreckung versagt werden, wenn der Schiedsspruch mit dem ordre public des Vollstreckungsstaats unvereinbar ist.</p>
<p>Genau hier zeigt sich das Koh&auml;renzproblem von Art. 11ca. Die Norm sch&uuml;tzt Schiedsklauseln pauschal gegen russische Gerichte. Die unionsrechtliche Akzeptanz von Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit reicht jedoch allenfalls so weit, wie &nbsp;Schiedsspr&uuml;che letztlich mitgliedstaatlicher Kontrolle zug&auml;nglich bleiben. Art. 11ca sichert das vereinbarte Forum, sagt aber nichts dar&uuml;ber, ob diese Kontrollvoraussetzungen f&uuml;r das konkrete Schiedsregime erf&uuml;llt sind.</p>
<p>Diese L&uuml;cke tritt besonders deutlich bei Schiedsregimen hervor, die nationaler Kontrolle nur eingeschr&auml;nkt zug&auml;nglich sind. Bei ICSID-Schiedsspr&uuml;chen greifen die normalen nationalen Aufhebungs- und Anerkennungsmechanismen gerade nicht. Die Kontrolle erfolgt grunds&auml;tzlich nur innerhalb des ICSID-Systems als sog. <em>self-contained regime</em>. Je schw&auml;cher der Zugriff mitgliedstaatlicher Gerichte auf den Schiedsspruch ausf&auml;llt, desto schwieriger wird es, die Beachtung zwingenden EU-Sanktionsrechts durch nachgelagerte Kontrolle abzusichern.</p>
<p>Noch sch&auml;rfer tr&auml;te das Koh&auml;renzproblem hervor, wenn der EuGH in der Rechtssache&nbsp;<em>Reibel</em>&nbsp;den Schlussantr&auml;gen des Generalanwalts nicht folgt und Schiedsverfahren f&uuml;r sanktionsbezogene Streitigkeiten unionsrechtlich enger begrenzt oder sogar ausschlie&szlig;t. Art. 11ca geriete dann in eine paradoxe Lage: Die Norm w&uuml;rde Schiedsklauseln gegen russische Eingriffe sch&uuml;tzen und damit ein Forum absichern, das unionsrechtlich selbst nicht oder nur eingeschr&auml;nkt zul&auml;ssig w&auml;re.</p>
<p>Art. 11ca kn&uuml;pft daher nicht l&uuml;ckenlos an die unionsrechtliche Kontrollpr&auml;misse an. Zwar sch&uuml;tzt die Norm vereinbarte Streitbeilegungsmechanismen gegen russische Eingriffe. Sie kl&auml;rt aber nicht, ob das gesch&uuml;tzte Forum seinerseits hinreichend an das Unionsrecht r&uuml;ckgebunden ist und ob der sp&auml;tere Schiedsspruch zumindest einer wirksamen mitgliedstaatlichen Kontrolle unterliegt. Art. 11ca verteidigt also die Eingangst&uuml;r zur Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit, ohne den Ausgang vollst&auml;ndig zu kontrollieren.</p>
<h2><strong>Fazit: Strategisches Misstrauen ohne vollst&auml;ndige Architektur</strong></h2>
<p>Art. 11ca markiert keinen einfachen Kurswechsel des Unionsrechts zur Anti-Suit Injunction. Die Norm zeigt vielmehr, wie sich europ&auml;isches Prozessrecht unter geopolitischem Druck ver&auml;ndert: weg vom reinen Vertrauen in koordinierte Zust&auml;ndigkeitsregeln, hin zu prozessualer Gegenwehr gegen fremdstaatliches Lawfare. Diese Gegenwehr bleibt jedoch unvollst&auml;ndig. Die neue ASI ist nur so stark wie ihre Vollstreckbarkeit und nur so koh&auml;rent wie die unionsrechtliche Kontrolle des Forums, das sie sch&uuml;tzt. Ihre finanziellen Sanktionen setzen tats&auml;chlich und rechtlich zug&auml;ngliche Verm&ouml;genswerte voraus; ihr Schutz von Schiedsklauseln setzt voraus, dass die gesch&uuml;tzte Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit nicht zugleich den unionsrechtlichen Kontrollmechanismen entzogen ist. Solange beides nicht durchgehend gesichert ist, bleibt Art. 11ca ein Instrument strategischen Misstrauens ohne vollst&auml;ndige Durchsetzungs- und Koh&auml;renzarchitektur. Nicht die Partei selbst, sondern das Gericht stellt ja das Verfahren ein, deshalb dieser Zusatz.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/politisiertes-prozessrecht/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Politisiertes Prozessrecht</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-08T15:01:03+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Maxima Hubbes</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-08T15:01:03+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="eu"/>

	<category term="eu verordnung"/>

	<category term="europäische union"/>

	<category term="lawfare"/>

	<category term="russland"/>

	<category term="sanktionen"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-08:/289881</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/digitaler-euro/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Zukunftsvision Digitaler Euro</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Seit Jahren diskutiert die Union einen &bdquo;Digitalen Euro&ldquo;: eine &ouml;ffentlich garantierte Form digitalen ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Seit Jahren diskutiert die Union einen &bdquo;Digitalen Euro&ldquo;: eine &ouml;ffentlich garantierte Form digitalen Geldes, die nicht von privaten Zahlungsdienstleistern wie PayPal oder Visa abh&auml;ngig ist. Politisch steht der Digitale Euro damit f&uuml;r den Erhalt von Souver&auml;nit&auml;t und Stabilit&auml;t des Euro im digitalen Zeitalter. W&auml;hrend der Rat seine Position bereits im Dezember festgelegt hat, verhandelt das Europ&auml;ische Parlament noch immer den Verordnungsentwurf der Kommission. Die f&uuml;r den 5.&nbsp;Mai geplante Abstimmung wurde kurzfristig verschoben; laut <a href="https://t3n.de/news/zu-viele-offenen-fragen-beim-digitalen-euro-abstimmung-im-eu-parlament-soll-sich-verzoegern-1739223/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Medienberichten</a> hatten die EU-Abgeordneten noch an rund 1500 Stellen Nachbesserungsw&uuml;nsche. <a href="https://www.ledgerinsights.com/digital-euro-in-parliamentary-vote-this-month/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Neuer Abstimmungstermin</a> ist nun der 23. Juni. Die Verordnung soll bis Ende des Jahres verabschiedet werden, damit der Digitale Euro 2029 starten kann.</p>
<p>In den polit&ouml;konomischen Verh&auml;ltnissen des modernen Geldwesens ist der Digitale Euro allerdings weniger eine Frage des Ob, sondern vor allem eine Frage des Wie. Baut der Gesetzgeber den Digitalen Euro bewusst &bdquo;unspektakul&auml;r stabil&ldquo;, ohne die Potenziale eines digitalen &ouml;ffentlichen Geldmediums auszusch&ouml;pfen, wird er kaum Transformation bewirken. Um die Souver&auml;nit&auml;t der W&auml;hrungsunion nachhaltig zu st&uuml;tzen, muss der Digitale Euro mutig und innovativ konstruiert werden.</p>
<h2>Die gegenw&auml;rtige Funktion des Euro</h2>
<p>In der traditionellen &ouml;konomischen Geldtheorie erf&uuml;llt Geld drei grundlegende Funktionen: als Zahlungsmittel, Wertaufbewahrungsmittel und Rechnungseinheit (<a href="https://www.bpb.de/themen/wirtschaft/wirtschaftspolitik/560770/geld-was-ist-das-eigentlich/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dazu grundlegend Aaron Sahr</a>). Im Wirkungsbereich des Euro werden alle drei Funktionen bereits l&uuml;ckenlos verwirklicht: Im allt&auml;glichen Geschehen des Marktes bildet der Euro als Rechnungseinheit einen allgemeing&uuml;ltigen Wertma&szlig;stab, der Preise auszeichnet &ndash; von der Supermarktkasse bis zum Onlineshopping. Egal ob in Form von Bargeld, auf dem Konto einer Gesch&auml;ftsbank oder in anderen Anlagem&ouml;glichkeiten, auf Euro lautende Geldmedien k&ouml;nnen uneingeschr&auml;nkt als Wertaufbewahrungsmittel genutzt werden. Auch im Zahlungsverkehr bestehen f&uuml;r den Euro keinerlei Funktionseinschr&auml;nkungen. Im digitalen Raum erm&ouml;glichen Zahlungsdienstleister wie PayPal und Apple Pay oder Kreditkartenanbieter wie Visa und Mastercard jederzeit die Zahlung in Euro. Analog lassen sich diese Mittel &uuml;ber moderne Near Field Communication (NFC) nutzen, die den kontaktlosen Datenaustausch erm&ouml;glicht, w&auml;hrend das herk&ouml;mmliche Bargeld als konventionelles Zahlungsmittel hinzutritt. Der Euro funktioniert &ndash; sowohl analog als auch digital. Wozu also ein Digitaler Euro?</p>
<h2>Eine Abh&auml;ngigkeit von privaten Finanzunternehmen</h2>
<p>Reduziert man das Wesen des Geldes allein auf diese &ouml;konomischen Funktionen, h&auml;tte ein Digitaler Euro tats&auml;chlich wenig Mehrwert. Diese Reduktion blendet allerdings die polit&ouml;konomischen Machtstrukturen aus, die dem derzeitigen Geldsystem zugrunde liegen. Zwar zeichnet sich die EU f&uuml;r die W&auml;hrung des Euro als abstrakt bestimmte Rechnungseinheit hoheitlich verantwortlich. Doch im Zahlungsverkehr besteht eine direkte R&uuml;ckbindung an die EZB &ndash; und damit eine Verpflichtung zu rechtsstaatlichen Grunds&auml;tzen &ndash; allein beim Bargeld. Bargeld ist derzeit die einzige Form &ouml;ffentlichen Geldes, die f&uuml;r B&uuml;rgerinnen und B&uuml;rger als Endnutzer des Geldsystems zur Verf&uuml;gung steht.</p>
<p>Alle anderen nutzbaren Formen des Geldes beruhen auf einer Gew&auml;hr privater Unternehmen und sind somit privates Geld. Bereits die Geldsch&ouml;pfung liegt nicht bei der EZB, sondern bei privaten Gesch&auml;ftsbanken, die durch ihre autonomen Kreditvergaben &uuml;ber den Umfang der umlaufenden Geldmenge bestimmen. Seit der Finanzkrise gelten besonders gro&szlig;e Banken aufgrund ihrer weitreichenden Verflechtungen am Markt als &bdquo;<a href="https://www.gabler-banklexikon.de/definition/too-big-fail-70483" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">too big to fail</a>&ldquo;. Neben die Gesch&auml;ftsbanken treten die Anbieter von Zahlungsdienstleistungen wie PayPal, Apple Pay, Visa, Mastercard usw. Formal wickeln diese Unternehmen lediglich Zahlungsvorg&auml;nge ab und verschieben privates Geld von A nach B. Doch wer Zahlungsvorg&auml;nge technisch abwickelt, kontrolliert auch den zentralen Zugang zu einer wirtschaftlichen Teilhabe am Markt. Und so haben diese Unternehmen die Macht, Transaktionen zu sperren, Nutzerinnen und Nutzer auszuschlie&szlig;en, Geb&uuml;hrenstrukturen zu bestimmen und Daten &uuml;ber das Zahlungsverhalten ihrer Nutzerinnen und Nutzer zu sammeln. Zahlungsanbieter diktieren die Regeln und Bedingungen der monet&auml;ren Teilhabe am Markt.</p>
<p>Erschwerend kommt hinzu, dass die im Euroraum dominanten Anbieter dieser Zahlungsdienstleistungen eine geschlossene Gruppe US-amerikanischer Gro&szlig;unternehmen bilden. Im Rahmen der US-Sanktionen gegen die Richterinnen und Richter des ICC sperrten etwa PayPal, Visa und Mastercard ihre Zug&auml;nge (<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/die-sanktionierung-des-rechts/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dazu Kai Ambos</a>). Das Oligopol der US-amerikanischen Zahlungsanbieter kann in dieser Form jedoch nicht nur Einzelpersonen, sondern auch Unternehmen, Staaten oder die gesamte EU sanktionieren. Global agierende Finanzkonzerne sind so zu politischen Machtinstrumenten herangewachsen (<a href="https://www.faz.net/premium/meine-finanzen/vorsorge/wer-kontrolliert-das-neue-digitale-geld-accg-200725490.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dazu k&uuml;rzlich Carola Westermeier und David Hengsbach</a>). Im digitalen Raum besteht f&uuml;r B&uuml;rgerinnen und B&uuml;rger gegenw&auml;rtig keine M&ouml;glichkeit, auf eine &ouml;ffentliche Alternative der EU zur&uuml;ckzugreifen. Bargeld ist im digitalen Raum nicht nutzbar.</p>
<h2>Der Digitale Euro</h2>
<p>Hier kn&uuml;pft der Digitale Euro an. Er soll als &ouml;ffentliche Form digitalen Geldes unmittelbar von der EZB bereitgestellt und im rechtsstaatlichen System der W&auml;hrungsunion hoheitlich verantwortet werden. Wie beim Bargeld sollen rechtliche Strukturen seine Funktion als universelles Zahlungsmittel gew&auml;hrleisten. Genau diesen Anspruch begr&uuml;ndet ein Digitaler Euro gegen&uuml;ber der emittierenden Zentralbank. Als rechtssichere Alternative zu den etablierten Finanzinstrumenten hat der Digitale Euro so das Potenzial, die bestehenden Machtstrukturen innerhalb des Geldsystems zu verschieben und die selbstverwaltete Funktionsf&auml;higkeit der W&auml;hrungsunion im digitalen Zeitalter zu erneuern. Auch gegen&uuml;ber den zunehmend auf den Markt dr&auml;ngenden Krypto-Assets (dezentral auf einer Blockchain abgebildete Verm&ouml;genswerte wie der Bitcoin) und Stablecoins (Krypto-Assets, deren Wert an Referenzen wie den US-Dollar oder Gold r&uuml;ckgebunden ist), kann ein Digitaler Euro eine nachhaltige Alternative darstellen (<a href="https://www.bundesbank.de/resource/blob/920566/4cc823bbce2aacef5f4c42aaa3eec3ee/mL/2023-12-kryptowerte-data.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">zur Einordnung von Krypto-Assets und Stablecoins durch die Bundesbank</a>).</p>
<p>Der Digitale Euro hat also erhebliches Innovationspotenzial. Um dieses auszusch&ouml;pfen, sollte ein Digitaler Euro insbesondere vier Eigenschaften aufweisen:</p>
<p>Erstens ist ein Digitaler Euro als gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel zu etablieren. Wie beim Bargeld schafft dieser Status einen rechtlichen Annahmezwang: Ein Digitaler Euro muss dann grunds&auml;tzlich zur rechtlichen Tilgung von Geldschulden akzeptiert werden &ndash; sowohl von privaten als auch von staatlichen Akteuren.</p>
<p>Zweitens erfordert ein Digitaler Euro hohe Datenschutz- und Privatsph&auml;renstandards. Bei der Nutzung digitalen Geldes entstehen zwangsl&auml;ufig Daten. W&auml;hrend die Gesch&auml;ftsmodelle der privaten Zahlungsanbieter von der Weiterverwendung dieser Daten getrieben sind, er&ouml;ffnet ein Digitaler Euro die M&ouml;glichkeit, ein Geldmedium mit bargeld&auml;quivalentem Datenschutz und rechtsstaatlicher Grundrechtsbindung zu erschaffen (zu Datenschutzfragen weitergehend <a href="https://zevedi.de/efin-blog-der-digitale-euro-ein-erster-blick-auf-drei-herausforderungen/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Andreas Kerkemeyer</a>). In seiner online-Funktion sind dazu m&ouml;glichst wenige personenbezogene Daten zu verarbeiten, sodass keine Zahlungsprofile erstellt werden k&ouml;nnen; in seiner offline-Funktion ist die Daten&uuml;bermittlung auf die G&uuml;ltigkeit des genutzten Geldes sowie den eingesetzten Zahlungsbetrag zu reduzieren.</p>
<p>Drittens sollte ein Digitaler Euro kostenlos nutzbar sein, um eine echte Alternative zu kostenlosen Zahlungsl&ouml;sungen wie PayPal zu bilden.</p>
<p>Viertens sollte es f&uuml;r einen Digitalen Euro kein gesetzlich fixiertes Haltelimit geben. Ein solches wird insbesondere diskutiert, um die Gesch&auml;ftsbanken vor Einlagenabfl&uuml;ssen zu sch&uuml;tzen. So besteht die Sorge, dass kurzfristig gr&ouml;&szlig;ere Summen von Giro- oder Sparkonten auf den Digitalen Euro &uuml;bertragen werden. Um dieser Entwicklung vorzubeugen, soll B&uuml;rgerinnen und B&uuml;rgern nur ein begrenzter Betrag an Digitalen Euro zur Verf&uuml;gung stehen. Doch die gesetzliche Fixierung eines solchen Haltelimits w&uuml;rde zugleich dauerhaft &ndash; trotz etwaiger waterfall und reverse waterfall functionality (Art.&nbsp;13 Abs.&nbsp;3 <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:6f2f669f-1686-11ee-806b-01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&amp;format=PDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verordnungsentwurf</a>), die durch die Verkn&uuml;pfung mit einem Bankkonto eine Geld&uuml;bertragung &uuml;ber das Haltelimit hinaus erm&ouml;glichen &ndash; die Funktion eines Digitalen Euro als vollwertiges Geldmedium begrenzen und damit seine allgemeine Akzeptanz im Zahlungsverkehr verringern. Insoweit w&auml;re es sinnvoll, die Festlegung eines Haltelimits einer flexiblen Ausgestaltung der EZB zu &uuml;berlassen, ohne diese gesetzlich zu binden.</p>
<h2>Eine Verantwortung des Gesetzgebers der W&auml;hrungsunion</h2>
<p>Per Definition ist ein Digitaler Euro unmittelbar von der EZB als Organ der EU auszugeben. Ohne eine rechtliche Erm&auml;chtigung kann die EZB indessen keine genuin neue Form des Geldes emittieren. Der Gesetzgeber der W&auml;hrungsunion muss also die rechtlichen Voraussetzungen dieser neuen, n&auml;mlich digitalen Zentralbankw&auml;hrung des Euroraums schaffen.</p>
<p>F&uuml;r die W&auml;hrungspolitik der Euro-Mitgliedstaaten ist die EU gem&auml;&szlig; Art.&nbsp;3 Abs.&nbsp;1 c) AEUV ausschlie&szlig;lich zust&auml;ndig. Zwar definieren die Unionsvertr&auml;ge den Begriff der W&auml;hrungspolitik nicht weiter. Nach der Rechtsprechung des EuGH beschr&auml;nkt sich die W&auml;hrungspolitik jedoch</p>
<blockquote><p>&bdquo;nicht auf die operative Ausf&uuml;hrung dieser Politik, [&hellip;] sondern beinhaltet auch eine normative Dimension, die darauf abzielt, den Status des Euro als einheitliche W&auml;hrung zu gew&auml;hrleisten&ldquo; (<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/?uri=ecli%3AECLI%3AEU%3AC%3A2021%3A63" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EuGH, Rs. C-422/19 und C-423/19, Rn. 38</a>).</p></blockquote>
<p>Die Union ist also auch dazu verpflichtet, rechtlich f&uuml;r den Funktionserhalt des Euro zu sorgen. Aufgrund der ausschlie&szlig;lichen Zust&auml;ndigkeit der EU sind die Mitgliedstaaten des Euroraums dabei nur in der von den Vertr&auml;gen vorgesehenen Form zu beteiligen.</p>
<p>Das Prim&auml;rrecht der EU erm&auml;chtigt die EZB nicht zur Ausgabe eines Digitalen Euro. Insbesondere Art.&nbsp;128 AEUV, der die Emission von analogem Bargeld reguliert und damit zugleich seine Abschaffung verhindert, enth&auml;lt f&uuml;r diese neuartige digitale Form des Geldes keine kompetenzrechtlichen Vorgaben. Die Rechtsgrundlage erfordert daher einen Sekund&auml;rrechtsakt. Die Europ&auml;ische Kommission st&uuml;tzt ihren Verordnungsentwurf zum Digitalen Euro zu Recht auf Art. 133 AEUV. Danach erlassen &ndash; unbeschadet der Befugnisse der EZB &ndash; das Europ&auml;ische Parlament und der Rat gem&auml;&szlig; dem ordentlichen Gesetzgebungsverfahren die Ma&szlig;nahmen, die f&uuml;r die Verwendung des Euro als einheitliche W&auml;hrung erforderlich sind. Nach dem Verfahren des Art. 294 AEUV k&ouml;nnen die beiden Organe demnach die rechtliche Grundlage eines Digitalen Euro schaffen.</p>
<h2>Fortschritt vertagt oder Fortschritt verweigert?</h2>
<p>Bereits im Juni 2023 hatte die Europ&auml;ische Kommission den <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:6f2f669f-1686-11ee-806b-01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&amp;format=PDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Entwurf einer Verordnung zur Einf&uuml;hrung des Digitalen Euro</a> unterbreitet. Nach den Neuwahlen des Europ&auml;ischen Parlaments im Juni 2024 sowie einer langen politischen Blockade durch die parlamentarischen Berichterstatter scheint sich im Gesetzgebungsprozess nun etwas zu bewegen. Der Rat hat seine Position im vergangenen Dezember in einem umfangreichen <a href="https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-16695-2025-INIT/en/pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mandat f&uuml;r Verhandlungen mit dem Europ&auml;ischen Parlament</a> festgelegt. Demnach stehen die Mitgliedstaaten politisch grunds&auml;tzlich hinter dem Projekt. Im Europ&auml;ischen Parlament liegt die Situation komplizierter: In der Vergangenheit wurde insbesondere konservativen Kr&auml;ften mit engen Verbindungen zur Finanzwirtschaft nachgesagt, den Gesetzgebungsprozess zu verschleppen (<a href="https://netzpolitik.org/2024/stillstand-im-eu-parlament-wie-konservative-den-digitalen-euro-verzoegern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dazu im Juli 2024</a>) &ndash; vordergr&uuml;ndig wegen <a href="https://gi.de/meldung/digitale-waehrungen-schaffen-glaeserne-menschen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sorgen vor dem &bdquo;gl&auml;sernen B&uuml;rger&ldquo;</a> sowie der <a href="https://bankenverband.de/digitalisierung/kernforderungen-der-deutschen-kreditwirtschaft-zum-digitalen-euro#1." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verdr&auml;ngung vermeintlich bew&auml;hrter Banken- und Zahlungssysteme</a>. Es bleibt zu hoffen, dass die geplante Abstimmung im Ausschuss f&uuml;r Wirtschaft und W&auml;hrung (ECON) am 23.&nbsp;Juni tats&auml;chlich stattfindet. Erst nach der Abstimmung des Parlaments folgt die informelle Trilog-Verhandlung zwischen Parlament, Rat und Kommission, um sich vorl&auml;ufig &uuml;ber den Verordnungsentwurf zu einigen. Trotz politischer Fortschritte droht das Gesetzgebungsverfahren damit noch immer zu einer H&auml;ngepartie &uuml;ber unz&auml;hlige Detailfragen zu werden.</p>
<h2>Innovatives Geld braucht innovatives Recht</h2>
<p>Das laufende Gesetzgebungsverfahren zum Digitalen Euro unterscheidet ihn bereits von anderen digitalen Geldformen. So bestimmt nicht einseitig ein privates Unternehmen, sondern ein demokratischer Rechtssetzungsprozess &uuml;ber seine Gestalt und Funktion und bindet ihn unmittelbar im rechtsstaatlichen System der W&auml;hrungsunion ein.</p>
<p>Die Gesetzgebungsorgane der EU sollten nun entschlossen wichtige politische Eckpunkte festsetzen. Dabei stehen sie an einem Scheideweg: Soll der Digitale Euro die bestehenden Machtstrukturen des Geldsystems nachhaltig transformieren, sind die privaten Akteure des Geldsystems notwendig zu entmachten. Wird der Digitale Euro dagegen so zahm ausgestaltet, dass er blo&szlig; kein privates Gesch&auml;ftsmodell gef&auml;hrdet, kann man sich seine Einf&uuml;hrung auch direkt sparen. Um die Souver&auml;nit&auml;t und Stabilit&auml;t des Euro zu erhalten, muss ein Digitaler Euro den bestehenden privaten Bezahlsysteme mindestens ebenb&uuml;rtig sein &ndash; und dar&uuml;ber hinaus die besonderen Merkmale eines &ouml;ffentlichen Geldmediums ausweisen, mit denen er sich von privaten Geldmedien abgrenzt: als gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel mit Annahmezwang, mit hohen und bargeld&auml;quivalenten Datenschutz- und Privatsph&auml;renstandards, kostenlos nutzbar sowie ohne ein gesetzlich fixiertes Haltelimit. Die technischen Detailfragen kann der Unionsgesetzgeber einer Ausgestaltung der EZB &uuml;berlassen. Nach Art.&nbsp;127 Abs.&nbsp;1 AEUV ist die EZB ohnehin dem vorrangigen geldpolitischen Ziel der Preisstabilit&auml;t verpflichtet &ndash; wirtschaftsfeindliche Entscheidungen sind von ihr nicht zu erwarten.</p>
<p>Der Digitale Euro ist ein Projekt demokratischer Selbstbehauptung. Seine Rechtsgrundlage muss jeder B&uuml;rgerin und jedem B&uuml;rger eine freie, gleiche und rechtssichere Teilhabe am Zahlungsverkehr des Euroraums erm&ouml;glichen &ndash; unabh&auml;ngig davon, welches Unternehmen gerade die technische Infrastruktur betreibt oder welche politischen Interessen dahinter stehen. Letztlich stellt der Digitale Euro eine politische Grundsatzfrage: Soll die Zahlungsinfrastruktur der Zukunft ein &ouml;ffentliches Gut werden &ndash; oder der Macht privater Finanzinstitutionen &uuml;berlassen bleiben?</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/digitaler-euro/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Zukunftsvision Digitaler Euro</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-08T14:38:16+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Cederic Meier</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-08T14:38:16+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="digitaler euro"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu finanzverfassung"/>

	<category term="euro"/>

	<category term="europäische union"/>

	<category term="europäische zentralbank"/>

	<category term="ezb"/>

	<category term="währungsunion"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-08:/289882</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/timmy-verwaltungsgericht/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Der Buckelwal Timmy vor dem Verwaltungsgericht Schwerin</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Der Fall des Buckelwals &bdquo;Timmy&ldquo;, der vor der Insel Poel strandete, l&ouml;ste innerhalb k&uuml;rzester Zeit ei...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Der Fall des Buckelwals &bdquo;Timmy&ldquo;, der vor der Insel Poel strandete, l&ouml;ste innerhalb k&uuml;rzester Zeit ein mediales Echo aus, wie es in Deutschland wohl nur wenigen Tieren zuteil wird. Der Wal war im M&auml;rz 2026 erstmals in der Ostsee gestrandet, zahlreiche Menschen wollten ihn daraufhin retten lassen; private Initiativen boten ihre Hilfe daf&uuml;r an. Die Beh&ouml;rden mussten &uuml;ber Eingreifen, Abwarten, Duldung von Ma&szlig;nahmen und Kontrolle derselben entscheiden &ndash; im Einzelfall sicherlich keine leichten Entscheidungen.</p>
<p>Schlie&szlig;lich erreichte der Fall auch das Verwaltungsgericht Schwerin &ndash; mit insgesamt <a href="https://www.mv-justiz.de/gerichte-und-staatsanwaltschaften/fachgerichte/verwaltungsgerichte/verwaltungsgericht-schwerin/Aktuelles/?id=219559&amp;processor=processor.sa.pressemitteilung" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">19 Eilantr&auml;ge</a>n. Dort ging es jedoch letztlich nicht um die Frage, ob Timmy h&auml;tte gerettet werden k&ouml;nnen, d&uuml;rfen oder m&uuml;ssen. Die Verfahren scheiterten allesamt bereits an einer vorgelagerten Frage: Wer darf tierliche Interessen gerichtlich geltend machen?</p>
<h2>Timmy als Angeh&ouml;riger einer streng gesch&uuml;tzten Art</h2>
<p>Materiell-rechtlich genie&szlig;t der Buckelwal im Vergleich zu anderen Tieren einen sehr hohen Schutzstatus &ndash; und das nach internationalem, unionsrechtlichem und nationalem Recht. Als S&auml;ugetierart der Ordnung Cetacea f&auml;llt der Buckelwal unter Anhang IV lit. a der europ&auml;ischen <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/?uri=celex%3A31992L0043" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">FFH-Richtlinie</a> (Fauna-Flora-Habitat-Richtlinie); Art. 12 FFH-RL verlangt f&uuml;r diese Arten die Einf&uuml;hrung eines strengen Schutzsystems. Im nationalen Recht gestaltet das Bundesnaturschutzgesetz diesen Schutz aus: Arten des Anhangs IV der FFH-Richtlinie sind &bdquo;streng gesch&uuml;tzte Arten&ldquo; im Sinne von &sect; 7 Abs. 2 Nr. 14 lit. b BNatSchG; f&uuml;r sie gelten damit insbesondere die Zugriffsverbote des &sect; 44 Abs. 1 BNatSchG, d. h. etwa, dass Tiere dieser Arten nicht verletzt oder gar get&ouml;tet werden d&uuml;rfen (Nr. 1) &ndash; w&auml;hrend besonders sensibler Lebensphasen wie etwa Wanderungszeiten d&uuml;rfen Menschen sie dar&uuml;ber hinaus nicht (erheblich) st&ouml;ren (Nr. 2). Daneben gelten f&uuml;r sie die Besitzverbote des &sect; 44 Abs. 2 Nr. 1 BNatSchG.</p>
<p>Somit ber&uuml;hrten die im Fall Timmy diskutierten oder durchgef&uuml;hrten Ma&szlig;nahmen dem Anschein nach mehrere artenschutzrechtliche Verbote des &sect; 44 BNatSchG. Dies gilt insbesondere f&uuml;r k&ouml;rperliche Beeintr&auml;chtigungen, ein m&ouml;gliches &bdquo;In-Besitz-Nehmen&ldquo; sowie f&uuml;r St&ouml;rungen w&auml;hrend einer grunds&auml;tzlich sensiblen Lebensphase: Buckelwale wandern im Fr&uuml;hsommer typischerweise aus ihren warmen Fortpflanzungsgebieten in die nahrungsreichen Gew&auml;sser der Arktis. Unter eine St&ouml;rung fallen Handlungen, die das psychische Wohlbefinden eines Tieres beeintr&auml;chtigen und etwa Angstreaktionen hervorrufen k&ouml;nnen &ndash; ob dar&uuml;ber hinaus negative Auswirkungen auf den Erhaltungszustand der lokalen Population einer Art erforderlich sind, ist umstritten.</p>
<p>Gerade im Fall eines gestrandeten Buckelwals ist jedoch zu beachten, dass die artenschutzrechtlichen Verbote schutzzweckbezogen auszulegen sind. Das St&ouml;rungsverbot des &sect; 44 Abs. 1 Nr. 2 BNatSchG soll streng gesch&uuml;tzte Arten w&auml;hrend sensibler Lebensphasen vor Beeintr&auml;chtigungen sch&uuml;tzen, die ihre Fortpflanzung, Aufzucht, Mauser, &Uuml;berwinterung oder Wanderung beeintr&auml;chtigen k&ouml;nnen. Timmy konnte seine Wanderung jedoch gerade nicht fortsetzen, weil er auf einer Sandbank festhing. Ma&szlig;nahmen, die auf seine Befreiung und damit auf die Wiederherstellung der M&ouml;glichkeit zur Fortsetzung der Wanderung gerichtet waren, d&uuml;rften daher jedenfalls nicht ohne Weiteres vom Schutzzweck des St&ouml;rungsverbots erfasst sein. Andernfalls w&uuml;rde das Artenschutzrecht in sein Gegenteil verkehrt: Hilfe f&uuml;r ein streng gesch&uuml;tztes Tier w&uuml;rde gerade deshalb erschwert, weil dieses streng gesch&uuml;tzt ist. Auch eine an &sect; 44 BNatSchG ankn&uuml;pfende Strafbarkeit nach &sect; 71 Abs. 1 BNatSchG lag daher jedenfalls nicht nahe.</p>
<p>Soweit man einen Versto&szlig; gegen &sect; 44 BNatSchG ann&auml;hme, k&auml;me der Ausnahmegrund aus &sect; 45 Abs. 5 BNatSchG in Betracht. Danach ist es zul&auml;ssig, verletzte, hilflose oder kranke Tiere aufzunehmen, um sie gesund zu pflegen. Doch bereits eine &bdquo;Aufnahme&ldquo; im Sinne des &sect; 45 Abs. 5 BNatSchG erscheint bei einem gestrandeten Buckelwal nicht ohne Weiteres einschl&auml;gig. Hinzu kommt, dass die fachlichen Einsch&auml;tzungen zu seinem Gesundheitszustand nahelegten, dass der Wal kaum eine realistische Chance auf ein &Uuml;berleben gehabt h&auml;tte (siehe etwa Einsch&auml;tzungen der <a href="https://bdmlr.org.uk/statement-stranded-humpback-whale-in-germany" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>British Divers Marine Life Rescu</em><em>e</em></a>, des <em><a href="https://iwc.int/resources/news/further-statement-of-iwc-strandings-expert-panel-on-humpback-whale-germany" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">International Whaling Commission Strandings Expert Panel</a></em>, des <a href="https://www.regierung-mv.de/serviceassistent/_php/download.php?datei_id=1687832" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Deutschen Meeresmuseums und des Instituts f&uuml;r Terrestrische und Aquatische Wildtierforschung</a>). Die jeweiligen Gutachten bzw. Stellungnahmen legen den Schluss nahe, dass die Stimulations-, Bergungs- und Wiederaussetzungsbem&uuml;hungen absehbar nur zu einer <a href="https://bdmlr.org.uk/statement-stranded-humpback-whale-in-germany" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">(erheblichen) zus&auml;tzlichen Belastung</a> f&uuml;r den Wal f&uuml;hren und sein <a href="https://iwc.int/resources/news/further-statement-of-iwc-strandings-expert-panel-on-humpback-whale-germany" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Leid verl&auml;ngern</a> w&uuml;rden.</p>
<h2>Timmy als leidensf&auml;higes Lebewesen</h2>
<p>Gerade vor diesem Hintergrund ist auch an m&ouml;gliche Verst&ouml;&szlig;e gegen das Tierschutzgesetz zu denken. Dessen Schutzbereich erfasst grunds&auml;tzlich auch wildlebende Tiere, unabh&auml;ngig von ihrer naturschutzrechtlichen Einordnung. Nach &sect; 1 S. 2 TierSchG darf niemand einem Tier ohne vern&uuml;nftigen Grund Schmerzen, Leiden oder Sch&auml;den zuf&uuml;gen. Materiell w&auml;re dabei zu pr&uuml;fen gewesen, ob die vorgenommenen oder unterlassenen Ma&szlig;nahmen dem Wal Schmerzen, Leiden oder Sch&auml;den zuf&uuml;gten oder solche jedenfalls verl&auml;ngerten. Schmerzen erfassen dabei unangenehme sensorische und gef&uuml;hlsm&auml;&szlig;ige Erfahrungen, die mit einer tats&auml;chlichen oder potenziellen Gewebesch&auml;digung einhergehen oder einer solchen Erfahrung &auml;hneln (s. Gerhold, in: Caspar/Gerhold, HK-TierSchG, &sect; 1 Rn. 73). Leiden setzen Einwirkungen voraus, die der Wesensart des Tieres zuwiderlaufen, instinktwidrig sind und von dem Tier als lebensfeindlich empfunden werden, weil sie seinem Selbst- oder Arterhaltungstrieb entgegenstehen (s. Gerhold, in: Caspar/Gerhold, HK-TierSchG, &sect; 1 Rn. 77). Auch Angst infolge ungewohnten und gegebenenfalls als lebensgef&auml;hrdend wahrgenommenen Menschenkontakts kann Leiden begr&uuml;nden.</p>
<p>Strafrechtlich wird dieser Schutz durch &sect; 17 TierSchG flankiert, der unter anderem das Zuf&uuml;gen l&auml;nger anhaltender oder sich wiederholender erheblicher Schmerzen oder Leiden (Nr. 2 lit. b) unter Strafe stellt. Jedenfalls w&auml;ren die Rettungsma&szlig;nahmen nicht isoliert als belastende Einwirkungen zu betrachten. Wo ein Tier ohne Hilfe voraussichtlich &uuml;ber l&auml;ngere Zeit qualvoll verendet, kann die Chance, sein Leben zu erhalten oder sein Leiden zu verk&uuml;rzen, vor&uuml;bergehende Belastungen rechtfertigen. Strafrechtlich lie&szlig;e sich dies &uuml;ber den rechtfertigenden Notstand nach &sect; 34 StGB erfassen; zudem besteht grunds&auml;tzlich auch eine Pflicht zur Hilfeleistung nach &sect; 323c StGB. F&uuml;r die verwaltungsrechtliche Bewertung spricht derselbe Grundgedanke daf&uuml;r, belastende Rettungsma&szlig;nahmen nicht schon deshalb als tierschutzwidrig einzuordnen, weil sie kurzfristig Stress, Angst oder Schmerzen ausl&ouml;sen. Entscheidend w&auml;re vielmehr eine fachlich fundierte Abw&auml;gung zwischen der Belastungsintensit&auml;t der Ma&szlig;nahme, der realistischen &Uuml;berlebens- oder Befreiungschance und dem ohne Eingreifen zu erwartenden Leiden des Tieres.</p>
<h2>Beschluss des VG Schwerin</h2>
<p>Zu (derartigen) materiell-rechtlichen &Uuml;berlegungen kam das VG Schwerin nicht, da die Antr&auml;ge s&auml;mtlich bereits auf Ebene der Zul&auml;ssigkeit scheiterten. Die Antr&auml;ge richteten sich teils auf die Einleitung von Rettungsma&szlig;nahmen, teils auf die &Uuml;berpr&uuml;fung der beh&ouml;rdlichen Entscheidungen und teils auf das Unterlassen von Rettungsma&szlig;nahmen. S&auml;mtliche Antr&auml;ge blieben jedoch mangels Antragsbefugnis erfolglos oder wurden zur&uuml;ckgenommen. Die Antragsteller konnten nach Auffassung des Gerichts nicht darlegen, warum sie durch die jeweiligen Ma&szlig;nahmen oder deren Unterlassen in eigenen Rechten verletzt sein sollten. Die Normen des Tierschutzgesetzes seien nicht drittsch&uuml;tzend; eine Tierschutzverbandsklage existiert in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern nicht. Auch die Normen des Bundesnaturschutzgesetzes seien nicht drittsch&uuml;tzend.</p>
<p>Da die gerichtliche Argumentation in den 19 Verfahren im Wesentlichen gleich verlief, betrachten wir hier exemplarisch ein Verfahren n&auml;her (<a href="https://www.landesrecht-mv.de/bsmv/document/NJRE001640332" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3 B 1168/26 SN</a>).</p>
<p>Die Antragstellerin begehrte im Eilverfahren, das Land Mecklenburg-Vorpommern per einstweiliger Anordnung gem&auml;&szlig; &sect; 123 Abs. 1 VwGO zu verpflichten, s&auml;mtliche derzeit durchgef&uuml;hrten oder veranlassten Ma&szlig;nahmen im Zusammenhang mit der Rettung bzw. Refloatierung (also dem Wiederaufschwimmen und Abschleppen des K&ouml;rpers) des in der Kirchsee (Wismarer Bucht) befindlichen Buckelwals unverz&uuml;glich einzustellen, soweit diese mit erheblichem Stress, Schmerzen oder Leiden f&uuml;r das Tier verbunden sind. Hilfsweise sollte der Antragsgegner verpflichtet werden, die laufenden Ma&szlig;nahmen bis zur Einholung eines unabh&auml;ngigen, auf Meeress&auml;uger spezialisierten tierschutzfachlichen Sachverst&auml;ndigengutachtens auszusetzen und nur solche Handlungen zuzulassen, die nachweislich auf die Reduktion von Schmerzen, Leiden und Stress des Tieres gerichtet sind.</p>
<p>Das VG Schwerin lehnte den Antrag unter Hinweis auf &sect; 42 Abs. 2 VwGO analog als unzul&auml;ssig ab: Auch im Verfahren nach &sect; 123 Abs. 1 VwGO m&uuml;sse der Antragsteller plausibel darlegen, dass ihm der geltend gemachte Anspruch zustehen k&ouml;nne. Daran fehle es. &nbsp;Der Antragstellerin stehe offensichtlich kein Anspruch gegen&uuml;ber dem Antragsgegner auf das begehrte Unterlassen oder Handeln zu.</p>
<p>Ein Anspruch der Antragstellerin k&ouml;nne sich dabei insbesondere nicht aus &sect;&sect;&nbsp;1, 2 oder 17 TierSchG ergeben. Die Normen des Tierschutzgesetzes seien nicht drittsch&uuml;tzend &ndash; eine Beurteilung, die auch anders h&auml;tte ausfallen k&ouml;nnen. So entschied etwa das <a href="https://dejure.org/ext/2ff9083cc2d257248953e306ba6663b1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">VG Freiburg</a>, dass &sect; 16a Abs. 1 S. 1, S. 2 Nr. 1 TierSchG in Verbindung mit &sect; 2 Abs. 2 BadW&uuml;rttPolG drittsch&uuml;tzende Wirkung zu Gunsten der Antragsteller entfalten k&ouml;nne.</p>
<p>Weiter stellte das Gericht fest, dass in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern keine tierschutzrechtliche Verbandsklage vorgesehen sei. Ohnehin handle es sich bei der Antragstellerin um keinen anerkannten Tierschutzverband &ndash; eine Einordnung, die wohl auch f&uuml;r die Antragsteller in den 18 anderen Verfahren zutreffend ist. Die gegenw&auml;rtige Landesregierung beabsichtige nicht, eine tierschutzrechtliche Verbandsklage einzuf&uuml;hren (s. <a href="https://www.dokumentation.landtag-mv.de/parldok/dokument/60978/genehmigung_von_tierhaltungsanlagen_in_mecklenburg_vorpommern.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Landtags-Drucksache 8/3813</a>, S.&nbsp;6).</p>
<p>Auch die Normen des Bundesnaturschutzgesetzes seien nach Auffassung des Gerichts nicht dazu bestimmt, private Belange zu sch&uuml;tzen.</p>
<p>Ebenso wenig ergebe sich ein Anspruch aus Vorschriften des Gefahrenabwehrrechts, wie etwa dem Sicherheits- und Ordnungsgesetz Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (SOG M-V), da auch insoweit ein individualsch&uuml;tzender Anspruch auf ein bestimmtes beh&ouml;rdliches Einschreiten nicht ersichtlich sei. Ein Anspruch ergebe sich auch nicht aus Art.&nbsp;20a GG oder aus dem Unionsrecht. Weitere Anspruchsgrundlagen, aus denen sich ein gerichtlich durchsetzbares subjektives Recht der Antragstellerin herleiten lie&szlig;e, seien nicht ersichtlich. Die Antragstellerin werde durch die vorgetragenen Zust&auml;nde und den von ihr geschilderten &Uuml;berlebenskampf des Wals nicht in erkennbarer Weise in ihren Rechten verletzt.</p>
<h2>Verfassungsrechtlicher Tierschutz ohne prozessuale &Uuml;bersetzung</h2>
<p>Seit 2002 sch&uuml;tzt Art. 20a GG ausdr&uuml;cklich auch die Tiere. Der Tierschutz ist bei der Auslegung einfachen Rechts, bei Ermessensentscheidungen und in Abw&auml;gungssituationen zu ber&uuml;cksichtigen. Und doch: Obwohl der Tierschutz verfassungsrechtlich anerkannt ist, bleibt auf Bundesebene ungekl&auml;rt, wer diesen Schutz im Konfliktfall durchsetzen darf.</p>
<p>Besonders augenf&auml;llig wird dies an der fehlenden tierschutzrechtlichen Verbandsklage in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Das f&uuml;hrt zu einer schwer erkl&auml;rbaren f&ouml;deralen Zuf&auml;lligkeit: Ob ein Tierinteresse gerichtlich vertreten werden kann, h&auml;ngt insofern nicht von der Intensit&auml;t des Leidens des Tieres ab, sondern vor allem davon, ob das jeweilige Bundesland ein Verbandsklagerecht geschaffen hat und wie weit dieses reicht. W&auml;re der Wal im benachbarten Schleswig-Holstein gestrandet (seine erste Strandung trug sich am Timmendorfer Strand in Schleswig-Holstein zu), h&auml;tte sich die prozessuale Ausgangslage anders dargestellt. Das schleswig-holsteinische Gesetz zum Tierschutz-Verbandsklagerecht er&ouml;ffnet anerkannten Tierschutzvereinen Rechtsbehelfe, ohne dass sie eigene Rechte geltend machen m&uuml;ssen. Besonders relevant ist, dass das Gesetz auch Anordnungen oder die Unterlassung von Anordnungen nach &sect; 16a TierSchG erfasst. Ein anerkannter Verband h&auml;tte daher etwa versuchen k&ouml;nnen, die unterbliebene tierschutzrechtliche Steuerung der Rettungsma&szlig;nahmen als Unterlassen einer gebotenen &sect; 16a-Anordnung gerichtlich &uuml;berpr&uuml;fen zu lassen. Wenn Art. 20a GG den Tierschutz als gesamtstaatliches Verfassungsziel anerkennt, erscheint es durchaus inkonsequent, seine gerichtliche Durchsetzung derart zu fragmentieren.</p>
<h2>Naturschutz ist nicht gleich Tierschutz</h2>
<p>Der Fall zeigt zudem, dass auch Ausweich&uuml;berlegungen oftmals nicht weiterf&uuml;hren: Wo ein tierschutzrechtlicher Zugang fehlt, liegt es nahe, tierliche Interessen naturschutzrechtlich zu rahmen. Zwar sch&uuml;tzen auch die Zugriffsverbote des &sect; 44 Abs. 1 BNatSchG den Buckelwal grunds&auml;tzlich als Individuum vor Beeintr&auml;chtigungen &ndash; seine Leidensf&auml;higkeit und sein Schmerzempfinden spielen jedoch keine dem Tierschutzrecht vergleichbare Rolle. Das Naturschutzrecht versteht das Tier in erster Linie als Bestandteil von &Ouml;kosystemen, nicht als empfindungsf&auml;higes Wesen. Das ist unbefriedigend. Der Schutz tierlicher Interessen darf nicht davon abh&auml;ngen, ob diese in umweltrechtliche Interessen &uuml;bersetzbar sind. Dies gilt umso mehr, da die betroffenen Umweltinteressen prozessual ebenfalls nicht durchsetzbar waren: Weder &sect; 64 BNatSchG noch &sect; 1 UmwRG begr&uuml;ndeten ein Verbandsklagerecht, mit dem ein beh&ouml;rdliches Einschreiten h&auml;tte geltend gemacht werden k&ouml;nnen. Beide Regelungsregime kn&uuml;pfen beim Anwendungsbereich der Verbandsklage an einen abschlie&szlig;enden Katalog von Entscheidungen beziehungsweise deren Unterlassen an. Damit kann gerade nicht jede umweltrechtlich relevante beh&ouml;rdliche Ma&szlig;nahme oder deren Unterlassen gerichtlich geltend gemacht werden. Das ist auch mit Blick auf die Aarhus-Konvention problematisch. Die Konvention soll den Zugang zu Informationen, &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung und gerichtlichem Rechtsschutz in Umweltangelegenheiten st&auml;rken. Art. 9 Abs. 3 verpflichtet die Vertragsstaaten, der &Ouml;ffentlichkeit Zugang zu gerichtlichen oder verwaltungsbeh&ouml;rdlichen Verfahren zu er&ouml;ffnen, um umweltrechtswidrige Handlungen und Unterlassungen von Beh&ouml;rden oder Privaten &uuml;berpr&uuml;fen zu lassen. &nbsp;Vor diesem Hintergrund wird zu Recht darauf <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/umweltrechtliche-verbandsklage/?utm_source=chatgpt.com" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">hingewiesen</a>, dass das UmwRG hinter den Anforderungen des Art. 9 Abs. 3 Aarhus-Konvention zur&uuml;ckbleibt, soweit es den Zugang zu Gericht auf einen abschlie&szlig;enden Katalog gesetzlich benannter Klagegegenst&auml;nde beschr&auml;nkt.</p>
<p>Der Fall Timmy macht einmal mehr deutlich, dass materieller Natur- und Tierschutz allein nicht gen&uuml;gen. Obwohl der Buckelwal artenschutzrechtlich streng gesch&uuml;tzt ist und dem Schutz des Tierschutzgesetzes unterliegt, konnte dessen Einhaltung gerichtlich nicht &uuml;berpr&uuml;ft werden. Denn es fehlt weiterhin an bundesweit verankerten Instrumenten, um tierliche Interessen im Einzelfall gerichtlich geltend zu machen. Solange dies so bleibt, bleibt der Rechtsschutz f&uuml;r Tiere fragmentiert: Er h&auml;ngt vom jeweiligen Landesrecht und von naturschutzrechtlichen &bdquo;&Uuml;bersetzungen&ldquo; tierlichen Leidens ab. Warum gerade ausgew&auml;hlte einzelne Tiere &ouml;ffentliche Empathie und private Hilfsbereitschaft in besonderem Ma&szlig;e mobilisieren, w&auml;hrend das Leiden unz&auml;hliger anderer Tiere weitgehend unsichtbar bleibt, ist wiederum eine eigene soziologische und ethische Frage.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/timmy-verwaltungsgericht/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Der Buckelwal Timmy vor dem Verwaltungsgericht Schwerin</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-08T14:19:28+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Nina Kerstensteiner</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-08T14:19:28+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="naturschutz"/>

	<category term="rechte der natur"/>

	<category term="tierschutz"/>

	<category term="tierschutzgesetz"/>

	<category term="verwaltungsprozess"/>

	<category term="verwaltungsrecht"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-08:/289831</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/service-08-06-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Service am Montag</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Stellen Wissenschaftlicher*r Mitarbeiter*in, 50% E13 TV-L, befristet, ab sofort, Lehrstuhl f&uuml;r &Ouml;ffen...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Stellen Wissenschaftlicher*r Mitarbeiter*in, 50% E13 TV-L, befristet, ab sofort, Lehrstuhl f&uuml;r &Ouml;ffentliches Recht, Verfassungstheorie und interdisziplin&auml;re Rechtsforschung (Prof. Dr. Julian Kr&uuml;per), Ruhr-Universit&auml;t Bochum, Frist: 16.06.2026 Studentische Hilfskraft, 40h/Monat TV-Stud III, befristet auf 2 Jahre, ab 01.10.2026, Projekt &bdquo;Das Verfassungsrecht der &auml;u&szlig;eren Sicherheit: Milit&auml;reins&auml;tze im Zeichen neuer Bedrohungen&ldquo;, Lehrstuhl f&uuml;r &Ouml;ffentliches Recht und V&ouml;lkerrecht (Prof. Dr....</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-08T06:16:41+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>JuWiss Redaktion</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-08T06:16:41+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="call for papers"/>

	<category term="das finden wir spannend"/>

	<category term="service"/>

	<category term="stellen"/>

	<category term="tagungen"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-07:/289793</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/the-power-of-purse-iv-redistributing.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Power of the Purse IV:  Redistributing Power among the Courts</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;As I previously
described, the second Trump Administration has dramatically shif...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span>As I previously
described, the second Trump Administration has dramatically <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/the-power-of-purse-i-inter-branch.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">shifted</a>
the Power of the Purse from Congress to the President.<span>&nbsp; </span>Accompanying this change have been internal
structural transformations of both <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/the-power-of-purse-ii-shifts-in-power.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Congress</a>
and the <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/the-power-of-purse-iii-shifts-in-power.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Executive
Branch</a> that have concentrated power in a few highly partisan hands and
damaged or destroyed mechanisms that brought a broader range of views to
bear.<span>&nbsp; </span>These transformations are both
causes and consequences of the more visible transfer of power from Congress to
the Executive.<span>&nbsp; </span>This post considers how
the President&rsquo;s seizure of greater fiscal powers has been accompanied and facilitated
by a subtle but crucial power shift within the judiciary.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Here, a relatively
efficient structure allowing timely resolution of disputes on their merits has
given way to one that tends to keep the judiciary on the sidelines.<span>&nbsp; </span>Judicial restraint, of course, is a
long-honored value in our system.<span>&nbsp; </span>Much
of its <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/444/996/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">rationale</a>,
however, has been that the &ldquo;political branches&rdquo; can take care of
themselves.<span>&nbsp; </span>That is an awkward fit for
disputes in which the President is depriving Congress of perhaps its most
important means of protecting its prerogatives:<span>&nbsp;
</span>the Power of the Purse.<span>&nbsp; </span><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>For decades prior
to this Administration, the federal courts had a fairly stable division of
labor on spending matters.<span>&nbsp; </span>Questions of
general law &ndash; the interpretation and constitutionality of spending statutes and
regulations &ndash; were addressed by federal district courts.<span>&nbsp; </span>Where officials applied policies improperly
denying individuals or organizations the benefits they were entitled to
receive, the district courts struck down those policies, with the <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/526/489/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Supreme</a> <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/413/528/#F4" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Court&rsquo;s</a> <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/496/498/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">blessing</a>.<span>&nbsp; </span>District courts could act quickly to respond
to recipients&rsquo; urgent <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/604/850/1402187/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">need</a>
and had sufficient powers to adapt <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/540/431/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">remedial</a> <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/440/332/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">orders</a> to whatever
violations they found. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Disputes over payments
allegedly due under the terms of individual federal contracts went to the Court
of Federal Claims.<span>&nbsp; </span>These cases typically
focused on the terms of the given contract and factual issues about whether the
contractor had met those terms rather than broader questions of federal
law.<span>&nbsp; </span>The Court of Federal Claims has far
narrower remedial powers, but with the narrow disputes before it these were
adequate.<span>&nbsp; </span>If the federal government
refused to pay for goods that in fact met contractual specifications, a simple
money judgment was all that was needed.<span>&nbsp; </span>The
Court of Federal Claims was slow, which was a genuine problem, but at least it
could eventually make financially strong contractors whole by awarding interest
<a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title31-section3902&amp;num=0&amp;edition=prelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">penalties</a>
under the Prompt Payment Act.</p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Now, the federal
government is systematically refusing to make payments not because of good-faith
disputes about contractual terms or vendors&rsquo; compliance but because the
Administration is asserting an aggressive new theory about the Separation of
Powers.<span>&nbsp; </span>Specifically, it is arguing that
the President is free at any time to reformulate the interests of the United
States notwithstanding contractual terms or duly enacted statutes.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Whatever one
thinks of the merits of this theory, it is very much the kind of dispute that
district courts commonly hear and worlds apart from those in the Court of
Federal Claims.<span>&nbsp; </span>To the extent that the
Administration&rsquo;s theory is incorrect, overall or in particular cases, a court
adjudicating its actions obviously may need to issue extensive remedial orders,
which the Court of Federal Claims lacks the power to do.<span>&nbsp; </span>That is particularly true given this
Administration&rsquo;s <a href="https://apnews.com/article/trump-courts-defiance-judges-lawsuits-152e5b39ca222c583962805fda5f47ae" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">penchant</a>
for <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/trump-federal-court-ruling-ignore-b2792939.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">disregarding</a>
court orders.<span>&nbsp; </span>Because spending programs
often target people and small entities in great financial need, payments years
late, even with interest, often cannot undo the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/usaid-cuts-hunger-sickness-288b1d3f80d85ad749a6d758a778a5b2" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">damage</a>
of withheld funds:<span>&nbsp; </span>agencies that close
often lose the capacity to resume their prior work.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Treating the
Administration&rsquo;s unilateral terminations or restructurings of federal spending
programs as a payments problem fundamentally misconstrues what is at stake and
Congress&rsquo;s purposes in providing for that spending.<span>&nbsp; </span>Although litigation is often brought, and
standing established, by the entities that had been direct recipients of funds,
programs&rsquo; purposes rarely are just to spend money:<span>&nbsp; </span>Congress sought to assist a particular set of
individuals it deemed in need or a designed set of entities to meet some social
purpose.<span>&nbsp; </span>The harms from ignoring those
human needs and social problems often will be irreparable.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Moreover, judges
on the Court of Federal Claims lack life tenure and other guarantees of
independence afforded judges on district courts and other Article III
tribunals.<span>&nbsp; </span>President Trump has
aggressively assaulted the independence of other bodies long recognized as
independent.<span>&nbsp; </span>Should the Court of Federal
Claims ever seriously impede his agenda, one might expect he would use his <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title28-section171&amp;num=0&amp;edition=prelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">considerable</a>
<a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title28-section174&amp;num=0&amp;edition=prelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">statutory</a>
powers to direct sensitive cases to judges of his choosing.<span>&nbsp; </span>That would be much harder with life-tenured
district judges.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The Supreme Court
has <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/24pdf/25a103_kh7p.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">acknowledged</a>
this reality only in part.<span>&nbsp; </span>It has
allowed district courts to continue to hear challenges to unlawful policies but
prevented those courts from ordering payment of improperly withheld funds.<span>&nbsp; </span>It also specifically <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/24pdf/25a103_kh7p.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">warned</a> district
courts against granting interim relief against the government in those cases:</p>

<p>And while the loss of money is not
typically considered irreparable harm, that changes if the funds &ldquo;cannot be
recouped&rdquo; and are thus &ldquo;irrevocably expended.&rdquo; Philip Morris USA Inc. v. Scott,
561 U. S. 1301, 1304 (2010) (Scalia, J., in chambers). The Government faces
such harm here. The plaintiffs do not state that they will repay grant money if
the Government ultimately prevails. Moreover, the plaintiffs&rsquo; contention that
they lack the resources to continue their research projects without federal
funding is inconsistent with the proposition that they have the resources to
make the Government whole for money already spent.</p>

<p>Of course, if any entity challenging the Administration&rsquo;s
illegal withdrawals of funding <i>did</i> assert that it could pay back the
funds if it lost its case, the Supreme Court has <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/604/24a910/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">indicated</a> that
entity would itself lack the irreparable injury required to obtain an
injunction.<span>&nbsp; </span><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>This effectively grants
the Administration a two-year runway to eliminate congressionally mandated
programs no matter how absurd its rationale may be.<span>&nbsp; </span>Perhaps some money might eventually be
disbursed, but by then the mechanism for achieving Congress&rsquo;s purposes often
will be damaged or gone altogether.<span>&nbsp; </span><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>A similar picture
seems to be coming into view with respect to one of the Administration&rsquo;s other
assaults on Congress&rsquo;s Power of the Purse:<span>&nbsp;
</span>the tariffs it unilaterally imposed and collected for the better part of
a year.<span>&nbsp; </span>At this writing, it seems likely
that many of those that paid this presidential levy will not receive refunds;
those to whom the cost of the tariffs was passed along through price increases
almost certainly will not.<span>&nbsp; </span><span>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>This is far from
inevitable.<span>&nbsp; </span>Having acknowledged that
district courts can hear challenges to unlawful policies obstructing the release
of funds Congress has directed to a particular problem, the Supreme Court could
certainly <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/383/715/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">allow</a>
district courts to grant relief sufficient to meet to the problem the Administration&rsquo;s
actions present.<span>&nbsp; </span>This would ensure that,
as the Supreme Court <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/603/23-939/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">proclaimed</a> two
years ago, &ldquo;[i]f the President claims authority to act but in fact exercises
mere &lsquo;individual will&rsquo; and &lsquo;authority without law,&rsquo; the courts may say so.&rdquo;&nbsp;<i>
</i>As it did in granting President Trump sweeping immunity from prosecution in
the absence of any textual authority for doing so, the Court <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/603/23-939/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">might</a> &ldquo;focus
on the enduring consequences upon the balanced power structure of our
Republic.&rdquo;&nbsp; The Court demonstrated in 2024 that it observes an emergency exception
to the usual rules of decision for grave threats to the separation of
powers.<span>&nbsp; </span>Few such threats are potentially
more far-reaching than depriving Congress of its Power of the Purse.<span>&nbsp; </span><i></i></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The Court
certainly could draw guidance from Contract Law, which is capable of distinguishing
between the vast majority of cases involving routine, one-off disputes and a
few exceptional instances of systemic bad faith.<span>&nbsp; </span>Insurance companies contract with vast
numbers of people, who assume they will pay in good faith if the insured suffers
a covered casualty.<span>&nbsp; </span>Resisting payment of
lawful claims can enhance an insurance company&rsquo;s margin, but it also undermines
the whole concept of insurance.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Accordingly, courts have <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/alabama/supreme-court/1981/405-so-2d-916-1.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">recognized</a>
that insurance companies denying claims in bad faith should not benefit from
Contract&rsquo;s usual rule disallowing punitive damages.<span>&nbsp; </span>The federal government, too, assumes
financial obligations to vast numbers of people, who trust it to pay in good
faith.<span>&nbsp; </span>If this Administration is
effectively free to refuse to do so, the federal government&rsquo;s ability to contract
to meet the country&rsquo;s needs will be damaged for decades to come.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>It also should be
noted that the other two types of presidential intrusions on the Power of the
Purse &ndash; <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/04/presidential-appropriations.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">spending</a>
money without a valid appropriation and declining to collect taxes Congress has
legislated &ndash; are unlikely to be vulnerable to judicial challenge because of the
Court&rsquo;s <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/468/737/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">interpretation</a>
of the &ldquo;cases and controversies&rdquo; requirement of Article III.<span>&nbsp; </span>If the Administration is free to impose taxes
and to withhold appropriated funds for a year or two no matter how
unsustainable its legal theory might be, Congress&rsquo;s Power of the Purse is well
and truly gone as anything more than a ministerial function.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><i>@DavidASuper.bsky.social
@DavidASuper1</i></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-07T01:00:48+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (David Super)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-07T01:00:48+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289642</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/was-uns-einfallt/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Was uns einfällt</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am Anfang war kein Wort &ndash; sondern nur ein wei&szlig;es Blatt. Auch bei diesem Editorial. Und jetzt stehen...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<div>
<p>Am Anfang war kein Wort &ndash; sondern nur ein wei&szlig;es Blatt. Auch bei diesem Editorial. Und jetzt stehen hier schon drei S&auml;tze! Als Leser:innen sind Sie meistens nur mit dem Endprodukt konfrontiert &ndash; unsere Autor:innen und wir beim Verfassungsblog hingegen mit&nbsp;diesem wei&szlig;en Blatt.&nbsp;Doch was passiert eigentlich, bevor die Texte bei uns ver&ouml;ffentlicht werden? Die Frage besch&auml;ftigt uns intensiver, seit wir das Gef&uuml;hl haben, dass KI das wei&szlig;e Blatt f&uuml;r uns f&uuml;llt. Wir wollen es uns deshalb zur Aufgabe machen, den bedrohten&nbsp;kreativen Prozess zu sch&uuml;tzen. Unsere Strategie ist dieselbe wie beim Artenschutz: Sichtbarmachung!&nbsp;Statt Ihnen Fotos von s&uuml;&szlig;en Orang-Utans zu pr&auml;sentieren, werden wir dazu kurze Texte aus unserer Redaktion und von unseren Autor:innen teilen, die den kreativen Prozess beschreiben: Wie kommen wir auf Ideen? Wo sind wir, wenn uns Ideen kommen? Wie s&auml;en und gie&szlig;en wir Ideen und wann merken wir, dass sie reif sind? Ich darf heute den Anfang machen.</p>
<p>Kreativit&auml;t also. Ich bin&nbsp;in&nbsp;dem Glauben aufgewachsen, dass es kreative und unkreative Menschen gibt. Was f&uuml;r eine trostlose Welt das w&auml;re! Inzwischen bin ich &uuml;berzeugt, dass Kreativit&auml;t unser Naturzustand ist: Wir lauern einander nicht als hungrige W&ouml;lfe auf, sondern schmieren lustige Figuren an H&ouml;hlenw&auml;nde, machen aus St&ouml;ckchen Feuer und tanzen dann drum herum.</p>
<p>Das Wort &bdquo;Einfall&ldquo; enth&auml;lt im Grunde schon alles: Die Idee f&auml;llt mir pl&ouml;tzlich in den Kopf hinein. Fr&uuml;her dachte ich, ich m&uuml;sse mehr machen: mehr lesen, mehr wissen, mehr schreiben, mehr mehr mehr (es war keine einfache Promotionsphase). Und blo&szlig; alles richtig machen. Dabei habe ich gelernt: Die Angst sucht das Richtige, die Freude findet das Wahre. Ich muss gar nicht so viel machen, sondern nur im richtigen Moment da sein und die Idee fr&ouml;hlich auffangen. Kreativit&auml;t ist&nbsp;<em>a way of being</em>, wie Rick Rubin es&nbsp;<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/717356/the-creative-act-by-rick-rubin/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in meiner kreativen Bibel</a>&nbsp;zusammenfasst. In bet&ouml;rend simplen Worten erinnert er uns daran, wie wir die Welt als Kinder wahrgenommen haben, verspielt und neugierig. Ach stimmt, so war das &ndash; damals, im Naturzustand.</p>
<p>Im Grunde fing mein kreativer Prozess also schon mit Beginn meiner inneren Aufzeichnungen an. Drau&szlig;en ist das Material: Waldlandschaften, Abenteuerromane, Gespr&auml;chsfetzen, Farben, Formen, Fachliteratur. Mein K&ouml;rper speichert davon eine Auswahl ab &ndash; nach einem mir undurchschaubaren Zettelkastensystem. Aber es funktioniert. Es beeindruckt mich immer wieder, was ich alles in den Archiven meines Unterbewusstseins finde und was ungefragt&nbsp;mit dem Aktenaufzug nach oben geschickt wird&nbsp;(etwa Werbejingles aus den 2000ern w&auml;hrend meines Staatsexamens). Aktenaufzug hei&szlig;t im Englischen&nbsp;<em>Dumbwaiter</em>, und so f&uuml;hlt sich der kreative Prozess auch manchmal an:&nbsp;<em>just waiting like an idiot</em>. Irgendwas passiert da unten im Archiv, und wenn ich lang genug warte, wird ein h&uuml;bsches und &uuml;berraschendes Aktenpaket ausgespuckt.</p>
<p>++++++++++<em>Anzeige++++</em>++++++++</p>
<p><a href="https://jobs.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/jobposting/95b57711a88a803b4491e633b9cce7ef7c32e51f0?ref=homepage" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-300x109.png" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-150x54.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-200x72.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-300x109.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-400x145.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-600x217.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-800x290.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1.png 930w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-150x54.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-200x72.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-300x109.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-400x145.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-600x217.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-800x290.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1.png 930w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://jobs.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/jobposting/95b57711a88a803b4491e633b9cce7ef7c32e51f0?ref=homepage" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-300x57.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-150x29.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-200x38.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-300x57.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-400x77.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-600x115.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-800x153.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-1024x196.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb.jpg 1181w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-150x29.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-200x38.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-300x57.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-400x77.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-600x115.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-800x153.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-1024x196.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb.jpg 1181w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></strong></em></p>
<p><em><strong>Der Lehrstuhl f&uuml;r &Ouml;ffentliches Recht, Verfassungstheorie und interdisziplin&auml;re Rechtsforschung</strong> von Herrn <strong>Prof. Dr. Julian Kr&uuml;per</strong> an der Juristischen Fakult&auml;t sucht zum <strong>n&auml;chstm&ouml;glichen Zeitpunkt eine*n Wiss. Mitarbeiter*in (m/w/d) mit 19,9150 Std./ Woche f&uuml;r die Dauer von 3 Jahren; TV-L E13</strong>. </em></p>
<p><em>Am Lehrstuhl steht das Verfassungsrecht im Mittelpunkt. Sie unterst&uuml;tzen den Lehrstuhlinhaber in Forschung und Lehre und f&uuml;hren Arbeitsgemeinschaften durch. <strong>Die M&ouml;glichkeit zur Promotion ist gegeben.</strong></em></p>
<p><em>Alles Weitere und Bewerbung <a href="https://jobs.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/jobposting/95b57711a88a803b4491e633b9cce7ef7c32e51f0?ref=homepage" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>.</em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>Das Timing ist au&szlig;erhalb meiner Kontrolle. Wann kommt eine Idee?&nbsp;Elisabeth Gilbert stellt sich Ideen in ihrem Buch <a href="https://www.elizabethgilbert.com/books/big-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Big Magic</em></a> als eigenst&auml;ndige Wesen vor, die st&auml;ndig um uns herumschwirren und nach einem willigen menschlichen Partner suchen. Haben sie jemanden gefunden, versuchen sie, auf sich aufmerksam zu machen.&nbsp;Ich mag das: Ideen als eigenwillige flatterige Wesen, der kreative Prozess als Teamwork zwischen innen und au&szlig;en.&nbsp;Vielleicht gehorcht mein Archivpersonal nur dem Ruf dieser Flederm&auml;use, den ich selbst nicht h&ouml;ren kann.&nbsp;So ist jedenfalls meine Erfahrung: Manchmal ist die Zeit f&uuml;r eine Idee einfach reif, und wenn ich mich nicht mit ihr verbinden will, kann es gut sein, dass sie sich ein paar Monate sp&auml;ter woanders materialisiert &ndash; als genau der Text, der bei mir als ungeschriebener Entwurf wieder im Archivkeller verschwand.</p>
<p>Stephen King r&auml;t, selbst in den Keller hinabzusteigen. Dort wohnt seine Muse, wie er in <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/On-Writing/Stephen-King/9781982159375" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>On Writing</em></a> beschreibt: &bdquo;There is a muse, but he&rsquo;s not going to come fluttering down into your writing room and scatter creative fairy-dust all over your typewriter or computer station. He lives in the ground. He&rsquo;s a basement guy. You have to descend to his level, and once you get&nbsp;down there you have to furnish the apartment for him to live in.&ldquo;</p>
<p>Auch das stimmt: Man muss es der Muse schon gem&uuml;tlich machen.&nbsp;Mir hilft dabei eine sch&ouml;ne Umgebung. Gerade sitze ich zum Beispiel in meinem Lieblingscaf&eacute;, hier l&auml;uft leise souliger Jazz, nebenan wird get&ouml;pfert, und es riecht nach einer Mischung aus nassem Ton und Pistazienkuchen.</p>
<p>Mein Archivpersonal scheint au&szlig;erdem nicht gut zu arbeiten, wenn ich ihm dabei streng &uuml;ber die Schulter gucke, die Stoppuhr in der Hand. Setze ich mich unter Druck, streiken die Beamten. Stattdessen hilft es, so zu tun, als sei ich mit was anderem besch&auml;ftigt: die kreative Aufgabe sanft pr&auml;sent zu halten, w&auml;hrend ich anspruchslosen anderen Dingen nachgehe.</p>
<p>Im Grunde bin ich ein bisschen wie Claude&nbsp;&ndash; eine Blackbox mit wahnsinniger Rechenleistung, nicht mehr nachvollziehbaren Assoziationsketten und reichlich Halluzinationen. Nicht jedes Aktenpaket bearbeite ich. Und hier unterscheide ich mich dann (zum Gl&uuml;ck!) von Claude: Ich habe einen K&ouml;rper. Mein Bauch muss kribbeln und meine Finger jucken &ndash;&nbsp;die Idee muss mich bewegen, sonst bringt es nichts. Deswegen f&auml;llt mir Gutes oft auch in Bewegung ein, beim Spazieren, Abwaschen, W&auml;sche aufh&auml;ngen. L&auml;sst mich die Idee dann nicht mehr los, muss ich ihr Raum geben: das wei&szlig;e Blatt.</p>
<p>++++++++++<em>Anzeige++++</em>++++++++</p>
<p><a href="https://stellen.uni-kassel.de/jobposting/816b38636951b98f772f6401b99541211c942c2a0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-300x56.png" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-150x28.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-200x38.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-300x56.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-400x75.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-600x113.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-800x150.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1024x193.png 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1200x226.png 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1536x289.png 1536w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-150x28.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-200x38.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-300x56.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-400x75.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-600x113.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-800x150.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1024x193.png 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1200x226.png 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1536x289.png 1536w" sizes="(max-width: 321px) 100vw, 321px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em>Das Fachgebiet <strong>Just Transitions</strong> beforscht Fragestellungen einer m&ouml;glichst gerechten <strong>sozial-&ouml;kologischen Transformation</strong> in transnationalen Kontexten. Themenschwerpunkte sind dabei unter anderem die &Ouml;kologisierung des Rechts und Resilienz von Demokratie und Rechtsstaats. Zur Verst&auml;rkung unseres Teams suchen wir zum <strong>1.9. zwei Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter*innen</strong>. </em></p>
<p><em>N&auml;heres und Bewerbung </em><a title="https://stellen.uni-kassel.de/jobposting/816b38636951b98f772f6401b99541211c942c2a0" href="https://stellen.uni-kassel.de/jobposting/816b38636951b98f772f6401b99541211c942c2a0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>hier</em></a>.</p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>KI nutze ich trotzdem, aber nur als Dienstleisterin meines eigenen Archivs. Sie kann die geschw&auml;rzten Stellen f&uuml;r mich nachschauen, die Erinnerungsl&uuml;cken in meinen Akten (sehr praktisch!), und auch sonst pr&uuml;fen, ob das Quatsch ist. Sollten sowohl meine nat&uuml;rliche als auch die k&uuml;nstliche Intelligenz dabei halluzinieren, z&auml;hle ich darauf, dass Sie es mir sagen.</p>
<p>Mit dem wei&szlig;en Blatt wird der Prozess aktiver, doch die F&uuml;hrung &uuml;bernehme ich auch hier nie ganz. Es ist wie beim Paartanz: W&auml;hrend ich den Rahmen halte, tanzt die Idee von allein. Jeder Tanz ist anders, der eine leichtf&uuml;&szlig;ig, der andere schwerf&auml;lliger &ndash; aber immer kommt man woanders raus, als man am Anfang dachte, leicht geschwitzt und beseelt. Wenn Sie mich jetzt f&uuml;r eine Romantikerin halten, liegen Sie richtig. Deshalb ist es mir auch ein R&auml;tsel, warum man lieber KI nutzt als zu tanzen.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
</div>
<h2>Editor&rsquo;s Pick</h2>
<p>von JAKOB GA&Scaron;PERIN WISCHHOFF</p>
<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-169x300.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-84x150.jpg 84w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-169x300.jpg 169w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-200x356.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-400x711.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-576x1024.jpg 576w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-600x1067.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-800x1422.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-864x1536.jpg 864w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers.jpg 1080w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-84x150.jpg 84w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-169x300.jpg 169w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-200x356.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-400x711.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-576x1024.jpg 576w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-600x1067.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-800x1422.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-864x1536.jpg 864w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers.jpg 1080w" sizes="(max-width: 169px) 100vw, 169px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>Ece Temelkuran&rsquo;s &bdquo;Nation of Strangers&ldquo; ist eine zutiefst pers&ouml;nliche, melancholisch-poetische Reise der Heimatlosen (<em>unhomed</em>). In Briefform &ndash; geschrieben &uuml;ber die letzten drei Jahre, an uns alle, die Entfremdeten &ndash; sucht Temelkuran nach ihrer neuen Zugeh&ouml;rigkeit und erschafft sie zugleich. Sie findet sie in all jenen, die Odysseus sind: <em>unhomed</em>, auf der Suche nach dem Weg (zur&uuml;ck) nach Hause. Ob auf der Flucht vor dem Faschismus, nach dem Verlust eines Zuhauses oder einfach davongelaufen &ndash; die Suche hinterl&auml;sst dieselben bohrenden Fragen: Warum bin ich gegangen? Wie werde ich &uuml;berleben? Werde ich je heimkehren?</p>
<p>Ihre aufrichtig ehrliche Reflexion hat vielen meiner eigenen Gef&uuml;hle die richtigen Worte gegeben. Vielleicht hat sie recht: Es gibt ein Band zwischen uns, den entwurzelten Fremden. Ich hoffe, wir alle finden am Ende unsere Ithaka.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<h2>Die Woche auf dem Verfassungsblog</h2>
<p>zusammengefasst von EVA MARIA BREDLER</p>
<p>Recht ist auch ein kreativer &ndash; kollektiver! &ndash; Prozess. Besonders sch&ouml;n lie&szlig; sich das k&uuml;rzlich im ecuadorianischen <strong>Amazonasgebiet</strong> beobachten: Am 28. Mai sprach ein ecuadorianisches Gericht der indigenen A&rsquo;i-Cof&aacute;n-Sinangoe-Gemeinschaft ihr Land zu. Vorausgegangen war eine interkulturelle Anh&ouml;rung mitten im Regenwald: Los ging es um 4 Uhr morgens mit einem Aufguss der Pflanze <em>yoco</em>, am Ende zeigten Kinder handgemalte Karten der Fl&uuml;sse, in denen sie schwimmen, und der Pfade, die ihre Gro&szlig;eltern gegangen sind. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/intercultural-hearing-amazon/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WIDER GUARAMAG UMENDA, ALEXANDRA NARV&Aacute;EZ UMENDA und JENNY GARC&Iacute;A RUALES</a> (EN) berichten aus erster Hand.</p>
<p>Wie k&ouml;nnte kreative Klimapolitik in Deutschland aussehen? Eher nicht wie das <strong>Heizungsgesetz</strong>. Doch es ist besser als keins. Das scheint der Gesetzgeber anders zu sehen und es so weit aush&ouml;hlen, dass eher hei&szlig;e Luft als hei&szlig;es Wasser &uuml;brig bleibt. Darf er das? Welche Grenzen die Verfassung f&uuml;r die Klimapolitik setzt und wann der Gesetzgeber Klima- und Umweltschutz abschw&auml;chen darf, erkl&auml;rt <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-heizungsgesetz-die-demokratie-und-der-rechtsstaat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CHRISTIAN CALLIESS</a> (DE).</p>
<p>Dabei hat sich die verfassungsrechtliche Beurteilung der <strong>Klimapolitik</strong> bisher an Obergrenzen der atmosph&auml;rischen Erw&auml;rmung orientiert. Was passiert, wenn diese Grenzen &uuml;berschritten werden? Diese Frage stellt sich derzeit in mehreren anh&auml;ngigen Verfahren. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/nach-dem-overshoot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">GERD WINTER</a> (DE) macht einen Vorschlag, der den Fokus vom Kalkulieren und Zuteilen von Emissionsbudgets hin zum technisch, &ouml;konomisch und sozial Machbaren verschiebt.</p>
<p>Auch das BVerfG stand zwischen der Zuteilung von Budgets und dem sozial Machbaren. In seiner j&uuml;ngsten Entscheidung zum <strong>Asylbewerberleistungsgesetz</strong> hat es niedrigere Sozialleistungen f&uuml;r Asylsuchende nun weitestgehend gebilligt. Damit relativiere das Gericht das Existenzminimum aus migrationspolitischen Gr&uuml;nden, so <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/bverfg-asylsozialrecht-existenzminimum/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LUISE FREITAG</a> (DE).</p>
<p>W&auml;hrend auf dem Feld des Migrationssozialrechts also gerungen wird &ndash; insbesondere um Gemeinschaft, Zugeh&ouml;rigkeit und Ausgrenzung &ndash; fordern neue Arbeitsformen das Arbeitssozialrecht heraus: Ohne Betrieb auch kein Betriebsrat. F&uuml;r Lieferpersonal in der Plattformwirtschaft f&uuml;hrt das zu Schutzl&uuml;cken &ndash; und stellt den <strong>Betriebsbegriff</strong> des Betriebsverfassungsgesetzes insgesamt in Frage. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-betriebsbegriff/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">FELIX HARTMANN</a> (DE) pl&auml;diert daher f&uuml;r eine modulare Alternative.</p>
<p>++++++++++<em>Anzeige++++</em>++++++++</p>
<p><a href="https://www.europa-uni.de/de/universitaet/arbeitgeberin/stellenangebote/index.html#03-stellen-wiss-personal-145839624" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-300x135.png" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-150x67.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-200x90.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-300x135.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-400x179.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-150x67.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-200x90.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-300x135.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei-400x179.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Viadrina_Bilddatei.png 600w" sizes="(max-width: 273px) 100vw, 273px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em><strong>Stellenausschreibung</strong></em></p>
<p><em>An der <a href="https://www.rewi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/br/handelsrecht/team/Lehrstuhlvertreter/Schirmer/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Professur f&uuml;r B&uuml;rgerliches Recht, Handels-, Gesellschaftsrecht, Compliance und Nachhaltigkeit</a> (Prof. Jan-Erik Schirmer) ist eine <strong>Qualifikationsstelle</strong> mit dem Ziel der <strong>Promotion</strong> als Akademische*r Mitarbeiter*in (Kenn-Nummer 1104-26-02) zu besetzen. </em></p>
<p><em><strong>Bewerbungsschluss </strong>ist der<strong> 14.06.2026.</strong></em></p>
<p><em>Unser ausf&uuml;hrliches Stellenangebot: <a href="https://www.europa-uni.de/de/universitaet/arbeitgeberin/stellenangebote/index.html#03-stellen-wiss-personal-145839624" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">www.europa-uni.de/stellenangebote</a></em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>Wie sich Mitbestimmung organisieren l&auml;sst, besch&auml;ftigte auch den <strong>indischen Supreme Court</strong>: Vergangene Woche entschied er &uuml;ber die Befugnisse der <em>Election Commission of India</em> bei der <em>Special Intensive Revision</em>, einer gro&szlig;angelegten Bereinigung der W&auml;hlerverzeichnisse. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/sir-judgment-supreme-court-india-election-commission/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ANMOL JAIN</a> (EN) zeigt, was sich daraus rechtsvergleichend f&uuml;r <em>fourth branch institutions</em> und Wahlbeh&ouml;rden lernen l&auml;sst.</p>
<p>Kreativ sind auch die Mitgliedstaaten des Europarats geworden: Mit der Erkl&auml;rung von <strong>Chi</strong><strong>&#537;</strong><strong>in&#259;u</strong> wollen sie die Gehalte der EMRK-Garantien mitgestalten. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/crossing-a-line-in-plain-sight/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LINA SOPHIE M&Ouml;LLER</a> (EN) argumentiert, dass sie damit eine Linie &uuml;berschritten haben, die sich auch mit diplomatischer M&auml;&szlig;igung nicht mehr retten l&auml;sst.</p>
<p>Noch kreativer ist die Idee, die <strong>Europ&auml;ische Verteidigungsgemeinschaft</strong> von 1952 wiederzubeleben. In seiner Erwiderung auf <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/why-the-european-defence-community-can-be-revived/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Federico Fabbrini und Franz C. Mayer</a> findet <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/again-the-european-defence-community-is-dead/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ROBERT SCH&Uuml;TZE</a> (EN) klare Worte: &bdquo;Again, the European Defence Community Is Dead, Let It Rest in Peace.&ldquo;</p>
<p>Popul&auml;rer ist die Idee einer neuen EU-Organisationsform: Die Debatte um die vorgeschlagene <strong>EU Inc.</strong> ist zu einer der lebhaftesten im europ&auml;ischen Gesellschaftsrecht geworden. Doch der Verordnungsentwurf zur EU Inc. sieht sich scharfer Kritik an seiner Rechtsgrundlage &ndash; Art. 114 AEUV &ndash; ausgesetzt. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/eu-inc-and-the-myth-of-the-perfect-legal-basis/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WOLF-GEORG RINGE</a> (EN) zeigt, dass die verfassungsrechtliche Debatte am Kern vorbeigeht: Wo politischer Wille ist, hat die europ&auml;ische Integration immer einen rechtlichen Weg gefunden.</p>
<p>Politischer Wille kann den Werten der europ&auml;ischen Integration allerdings auch schaden: Europ&auml;ische Justiz- und Berufsnetzwerke behalten <strong>Polens</strong> von der PiS gekaperte &nbsp;&bdquo;Gerichte&ldquo; weiterhin als Mitglieder. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/normalising-lawlessness-via-membership/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LAURENT PECH und OLIVER MADER</a> (EN) argumentieren, dass dies Rechtlosigkeit normalisiert &ndash; und dass die Europ&auml;ische Kommission handeln sollte.</p>
<p>Es gibt auch gute Nachrichten aus Polen: Nach der EuGH-Entscheidung in <em>Trojan</em> transkribieren polnische Gerichte nun im Ausland geschlossene <strong>gleichgeschlechtliche Ehen</strong>. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rewriting-marriage-after-trojan/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MATEUSZ W&#260;SIK</a> (EN) zeigt, wie sie au&szlig;erdem &bdquo;Wochenend-Ehen&ldquo; anerkennen &ndash; gest&uuml;tzt auf verfassungsrechtliche und EGMR-Argumente, die &uuml;ber die unionsrechtliche Freiz&uuml;gigkeit noch hinausgehen.</p>
<p>++++++++++<em>Anzeige++++</em>++++++++</p>
<p><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter-mpi/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-240x300.jpeg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-120x150.jpeg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-200x250.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-240x300.jpeg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-400x500.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-600x750.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-800x1000.jpeg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-819x1024.jpeg 819w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1200x1500.jpeg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1229x1536.jpeg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu.jpeg 1280w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-120x150.jpeg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-200x250.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-240x300.jpeg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-400x500.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-600x750.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-800x1000.jpeg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-819x1024.jpeg 819w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1200x1500.jpeg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1229x1536.jpeg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu.jpeg 1280w" sizes="(max-width: 246px) 100vw, 246px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em>Wie sieht die Zukunft des <strong>Straf- und Sicherheitsrechts</strong> aus? Wer den &Uuml;berblick behalten will, braucht mehr als Schlagzeilen. Das neue <strong>VB Security &amp; Crime Dossier</strong> bringt <strong>einmal im Monat</strong> die wichtigsten Debatten direkt in Ihr Postfach: Ein <strong>Kommentar</strong> an der Schnittstelle von Verfassungs-, Straf- und Sicherheitsrecht, ein <strong>Debatten-R&uuml;ckblick</strong> und unser <strong>&bdquo;Aktenvermerk&ldquo;</strong> f&uuml;r den schnellen Denkansto&szlig;. Eingeordnet, geb&uuml;ndelt und auf den Punkt gebracht.</em></p>
<p><em><strong>Jetzt kostenlos abonnieren:</strong> <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter-mpi/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter-mpi/</a></em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>W&auml;hrenddessen braucht <strong>Ungarn</strong> Geld f&uuml;r den Wiederaufbau seiner Rechtsstaatlichkeit. Eine Option: das Einfrieren der EU-Mittel aufzuheben. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/unfreezing-eu-funds-without-melting-the-rule-of-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">John Morijn und Kim Lane Scheppele</a> forderten daf&uuml;r k&uuml;rzlich striktere Verfahrensdisziplin. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/three-readings-of-one-decision/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">JOANNA DEMOPOULOU</a> (EN) argumentiert, die eigentliche Frage sei nicht, wie sich dieser Mechanismus entpolitisieren lasse &ndash; sondern wer das Ermessen aus&uuml;ben soll.</p>
<p>Ungarns Neuanfang birgt leider auch das Risiko, die Fehler von 1989 zu wiederholen. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-mafia-state-in-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">G&Aacute;BOR HALMAI</a> (EN) erkl&auml;rt, warum die Begeisterung der Bev&ouml;lkerung in diesen <strong><em>constitutional moment</em></strong> kanalisiert werden muss.</p>
<p>Unser Symposium &bdquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/category/debates/on-law-and-politics-in-the-hungarian-transition-debates/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><strong>On Law and Politics in the Hungarian Transition</strong></a>&ldquo; (EN) reflektiert genau diesen Moment. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/restoring-constitutional-justice-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">L&Aacute;SZL&Oacute; DETRE</a> beobachtet, dass das ungarische Verfassungsgericht den Rechtsstaatsabbau nicht verhindert hat, und pl&auml;diert daf&uuml;r, seine Besetzung zu erneuern &ndash; aber nur durch partei&uuml;bergreifende Nominierung.</p>
<p>Und schlie&szlig;lich erz&auml;hlt <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/outstanding-women-06-26/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MUSKAN KAKKAR</a> (EN) f&uuml;r unser Outstanding-Women-Portr&auml;t im Juni die Geschichte von <strong>Shirin Ebadi</strong> &ndash; der ersten muslimischen Frau und ersten Iranerin, die 2003 den Friedensnobelpreis erhielt. Ihr Leben ist ein Zeugnis daf&uuml;r, wie sich eine juristische Ausbildung in ein Mittel des Widerstands verwandeln l&auml;sst &ndash; und wie ein Mensch, selbst wenn ihm jede institutionelle Macht entzogen wurde, das Recht weiter als Werkzeug der Gerechtigkeit nutzen kann. Wie sie selbst sagte: &bdquo;I have a tongue in my mouth, and I will not keep quiet until the day I die.&ldquo; Auch bei ihr scheint der kreative Prozess also ein k&ouml;rperlicher zu sein.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<p>Das war&rsquo;s f&uuml;r diese Woche.</p>
<div>
<p>Ihnen alles Gute!</p>
<p>Ihr</p>
<p>Verfassungsblog-Team</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><em>Wenn Sie das&nbsp;<strong>w&ouml;chentliche Editorial</strong>&nbsp;als E-Mail zugesandt bekommen wollen, k&ouml;nnen Sie es&nbsp;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>&nbsp;bestellen.</em></p>
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<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/was-uns-einfallt/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Was uns einf&auml;llt</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T19:58:14+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Eva Maria Bredler</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T19:58:14+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="kolumne"/>

	<category term="kreativität"/>

	<category term="wissenschaftliches publizieren"/>

	<category term="wissenschaftsblogging"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289643</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/what-comes-to-mind/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">What Comes to Mind</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>In the beginning, there was no Word &ndash; only a blank page. This editorial was no exception. And look,...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<div>
<p>In the beginning, there was no Word &ndash; only a blank page. This editorial was no exception. And look, three sentences already! As readers, you usually encounter only the finished product, while our authors, and we at Verfassungsblog, have to face that blank page. So what actually happens before a text is published here? This question has been on our minds all the more since AI seems to be filling the blank page for us. We&rsquo;ve therefore made it our job to protect this endangered creative process. Our strategy is the same as in conservation biology: visibility. Instead of cute photos of orang-utans, we&rsquo;ll be sharing short pieces from our editorial team and from our authors describing the creative process: how do we come up with ideas? Where are we when ideas come to us? How do we sow and water them, and how do we know when they&rsquo;re ripe? I have the honour of making the beginning today.</p>
<p>Creativity, then. I grew up believing that there are people who are creative and people who are not. What a dreary world that would be! By now, I&rsquo;m convinced that creativity is our state of nature: we don&rsquo;t lie in wait for each other like hungry wolves &ndash; we scrawl funny figures on cave walls, rub twigs against each other until they burn, and then dance around it.</p>
<p>The German word for idea &ndash; <em>Einfall</em>, literally an &ldquo;in-falling&rdquo; &ndash; captures it nicely: an idea suddenly falls into my head. I used to think I had to <em>do</em> more: read more, know more, write more, more more more (it was a tough PhD phase). And please get everything right. But here&rsquo;s what I&rsquo;ve learned: fear chases what&rsquo;s right; joy finds what&rsquo;s true. I don&rsquo;t really have to do all that much &ndash; I just have to be there at the right moment and joyfully catch the idea as it falls. Creativity is <em>a way of being</em>, as Rick Rubin sums it up <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/717356/the-creative-act-by-rick-rubin/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in my creative bible</a>. In beguilingly simple words, he reminds us how we perceived the world as children: playful and curious. Oh, right, that&rsquo;s how it was &ndash; back then, in our state of nature.</p>
<p>And indeed, my creative process begins with the very first of my inner recordings. The material is out there: forest landscapes, adventure novels, snatches of conversation, colours, shapes, scholarship. My body files away a selection &ndash; obeying an inscrutable <em>Zettelkasten</em> system I&rsquo;ll never fully understand. But it works. Time and again, I&rsquo;m struck by what I find in the archives of my subconscious &ndash; and by what gets sent up the dumbwaiter unwanted (2000s ad jingles during my law exams, for instance). The name says it all: just waiting like an idiot. Something is happening down there in the archive, and if I wait long enough, a tidy and surprising file package comes up.</p>
<p>++++++++++<em>Advertisement++++</em>++++++++</p>
<p><a href="https://jobs.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/jobposting/95b57711a88a803b4491e633b9cce7ef7c32e51f0?ref=homepage" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-300x109.png" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-150x54.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-200x72.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-300x109.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-400x145.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-600x217.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-800x290.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1.png 930w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-150x54.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-200x72.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-300x109.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-400x145.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-600x217.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1-800x290.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/image-1.png 930w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://jobs.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/jobposting/95b57711a88a803b4491e633b9cce7ef7c32e51f0?ref=homepage" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-300x57.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-150x29.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-200x38.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-300x57.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-400x77.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-600x115.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-800x153.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-1024x196.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb.jpg 1181w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-150x29.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-200x38.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-300x57.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-400x77.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-600x115.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-800x153.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb-1024x196.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Logo_RUB_BLAU_rgb.jpg 1181w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></strong></em></p>
<p><em><strong>Der Lehrstuhl f&uuml;r &Ouml;ffentliches Recht, Verfassungstheorie und interdisziplin&auml;re Rechtsforschung</strong> von Herrn <strong>Prof. Dr. Julian Kr&uuml;per</strong> an der Juristischen Fakult&auml;t sucht zum <strong>n&auml;chstm&ouml;glichen Zeitpunkt eine*n Wiss. Mitarbeiter*in (m/w/d) mit 19,9150 Std./ Woche f&uuml;r die Dauer von 3 Jahren; TV-L E13</strong>. </em></p>
<p><em>Am Lehrstuhl steht das Verfassungsrecht im Mittelpunkt. Sie unterst&uuml;tzen den Lehrstuhlinhaber in Forschung und Lehre und f&uuml;hren Arbeitsgemeinschaften durch. <strong>Die M&ouml;glichkeit zur Promotion ist gegeben.</strong></em></p>
<p><em>Alles Weitere und Bewerbung <a href="https://jobs.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/jobposting/95b57711a88a803b4491e633b9cce7ef7c32e51f0?ref=homepage" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>.</em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>The timing is out of my control. When does an idea come? In <em>Big Magic</em>, Elizabeth Gilbert imagines ideas as autonomous beings whirring about us, looking for a willing human partner. Once they&rsquo;ve found someone, they try to make themselves noticed. I like that: ideas as wilful, flighty creatures, the creative process as teamwork between inside and out. Perhaps my archive staff are simply responding to the call of these bats &ndash; a call I can&rsquo;t hear myself. That is my experience: sometimes an idea is just ripe, and if I don&rsquo;t want to connect with it, it&rsquo;s not unusual that it&rsquo;ll materialise somewhere else a few months later &ndash; exactly the text I&rsquo;ve sent back down into my archive basement, as an unwritten draft.</p>
<p>Stephen King advises descending into the basement yourself. That&rsquo;s where his muse lives, as he writes in <em>On Writing</em>: &ldquo;There is a muse, but he&rsquo;s not going to come fluttering down into your writing room and scatter creative fairy-dust all over your typewriter or computer station. He lives in the ground. He&rsquo;s a basement guy. You have to descend to his level, and once you get down there you have to furnish the apartment for him to live in.&rdquo;</p>
<p>And it&rsquo;s true, we have to make it cosy for the muse. A nice environment helps me. Right now, for instance, I&rsquo;m sitting in my favourite coffeeshop; soulful jazz is playing softly, there&rsquo;s pottery being thrown next door, and the air smells of wet clay and pistachio cake.</p>
<p>My archive staff also don&rsquo;t seem to work well when I&rsquo;m watching them too closely over the shoulder, stopwatch in hand. The moment I put myself under pressure, they go on strike. What helps instead is pretending I&rsquo;m busy with something else: keeping the creative task gently present while I get on with undemanding things.</p>
<p>In a way, I&rsquo;m a bit like Claude &ndash; a black box with insane computing power, untraceable chains of associations, and plenty of hallucinations. I don&rsquo;t process every file package that arrives. And here I differ (thankfully!) from Claude: I have a body. My stomach has to tingle, my fingers have to itch &ndash; the idea has to move me, or nothing comes of it. That&rsquo;s why good things often come to me in motion: walking, washing up, hanging out the laundry. And if the idea then won&rsquo;t let me go, I have to make space for it: the blank page.</p>
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<p><a href="https://stellen.uni-kassel.de/jobposting/816b38636951b98f772f6401b99541211c942c2a0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-300x56.png" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-150x28.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-200x38.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-300x56.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-400x75.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-600x113.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-800x150.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1024x193.png 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1200x226.png 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1536x289.png 1536w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-150x28.png 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-200x38.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-300x56.png 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-400x75.png 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-600x113.png 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-800x150.png 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1024x193.png 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1200x226.png 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/KIS_UniKS_dots_pink_black_Zusatz-1536x289.png 1536w" sizes="(max-width: 321px) 100vw, 321px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em>Das Fachgebiet <strong>Just Transitions</strong> beforscht Fragestellungen einer m&ouml;glichst gerechten <strong>sozial-&ouml;kologischen Transformation</strong> in transnationalen Kontexten. Themenschwerpunkte sind dabei unter anderem die &Ouml;kologisierung des Rechts und Resilienz von Demokratie und Rechtsstaats. Zur Verst&auml;rkung unseres Teams suchen wir zum <strong>1.9. zwei Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter*innen</strong>. </em></p>
<p><em>N&auml;heres und Bewerbung </em><a title="https://stellen.uni-kassel.de/jobposting/816b38636951b98f772f6401b99541211c942c2a0" href="https://stellen.uni-kassel.de/jobposting/816b38636951b98f772f6401b99541211c942c2a0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>hier</em></a>.</p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>I do use AI, but only as an additional service to my own archive. It can look up the redacted passages for me, the memory gaps in my files (very handy!), and otherwise check whether what I&rsquo;ve written is nonsense. Should both my natural and my artificial intelligence end up hallucinating, I&rsquo;m counting on you to tell me.</p>
<p>With the blank page, the process becomes more active &ndash; but even here, I never quite take the lead. It&rsquo;s like partner dancing: I hold the frame while the idea dances on its own. Every dance is different &ndash; one light-footed, the next more ponderous &ndash; but you always end up somewhere other than where you started, a little sweaty, with a full heart. If you take me for a romantic now, you&rsquo;re absolutely right. Which is also why it remains a mystery to me why anyone would rather use AI than dance.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
</div>
<h2>Editor&rsquo;s Pick</h2>
<p>by JAKOB GA&Scaron;PERIN WISCHHOFF</p>
<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-169x300.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-84x150.jpg 84w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-169x300.jpg 169w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-200x356.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-400x711.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-576x1024.jpg 576w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-600x1067.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-800x1422.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-864x1536.jpg 864w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers.jpg 1080w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-84x150.jpg 84w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-169x300.jpg 169w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-200x356.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-400x711.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-576x1024.jpg 576w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-600x1067.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-800x1422.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers-864x1536.jpg 864w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Nation_of_Strangers.jpg 1080w" sizes="(max-width: 169px) 100vw, 169px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>Ece Temelkuran&rsquo;s <em>Nation of Strangers</em> is a deeply personal, melancholically poetic journey of the unhomed. Written as letters over the last three years &ndash; to all of us, estranged &ndash; Temelkuran searches for and creates her new belonging. She finds it in a collective bound by being Odysseus: displaced, still searching for the way (back) home. Whether escaping fascism, losing a house, or simply running away, the quest leaves the same haunting questions: Why did I leave? How will I survive? Will I ever go home?</p>
<p>Her profoundly honest account put the right words to so many feelings I recognised as my own. So perhaps she is right: there is a bond among us, the unhomed strangers. I hope we all find our Ithaca in the end.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<h2></h2>
<h2></h2>
<h2>The Week on Verfassungsblog</h2>
<p>summarised by EVA MARIA BREDLER</p>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">Law, too, is a creative &ndash; and collective! &ndash; process. We could watch that happen in real time recently in the <b>Ecuadorian Amazon</b>: on 28 May, an Ecuadorian court ruled in favour of the indigenous A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n Sinangoe community, granting them formal title to 63,755 hectares of Amazonian territory. The ruling came after an intercultural hearing held in the rainforest itself: it began at 4 a.m. over a brew of <em>yoco</em> and ended with children showing the judges hand-painted maps of the rivers they swim in and the paths their grandparents walked. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/intercultural-hearing-amazon/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WIDER GUARAMAG UMENDA, ALEXANDRA NARV&Aacute;EZ UMENDA, and JENNY GARC&Iacute;A RUALES</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(ENG) report first-hand.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">What might creative climate policy look like in Germany? Probably not like the <b>Heating Act</b>. But it is better than nothing &ndash; a view the legislator apparently does not share, busy as it is hollowing out the Act until rather more hot air than hot water remains. Is the legislator allowed to do that? </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-heizungsgesetz-die-demokratie-und-der-rechtsstaat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CHRISTIAN CALLIESS</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(GER) sets out the limits the Constitution places on climate policy, and analyses when the legislator may roll back climate and environmental protections.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">Until now, constitutional scrutiny of <b>climate policy</b> has revolved around upper limits of atmospheric warming. But what happens when those limits are exceeded? The question is now playing out in several pending proceedings. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/nach-dem-overshoot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">GERD WINTER</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(GER) puts forward a proposal that shifts the focus away from calculating and allocating emissions budgets and towards what is technically, economically and socially feasible.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">The Federal Constitutional Court, too, has been navigating between budget allocations and social feasibility. In its most recent ruling on the <b>Asylum Seekers&rsquo; Benefits Act</b>, the Court has now largely upheld lower social benefits for asylum seekers. For </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/bverfg-asylsozialrecht-existenzminimum/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LUISE FREITAG</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(GER), the decision relativises the constitutional existential minimum on migration-policy grounds.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">While German migration law is fought over questions of community, belonging and exclusion; German labour law is being tested by new forms of work that don&rsquo;t fit its categories: no establishment, no works council. For delivery riders in the platform economy, this creates real protection gaps &ndash; and calls into question the very concept of &ldquo;<b>establishment</b>&rdquo; on which the Works Constitution Act rests. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a title="Posts by Felix Hartmann" href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-betriebsbegriff/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">FELIX HARTMANN</a></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (GER) accordingly argues for a modular alternative.</span></p>
</div>
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<p><em><strong>Stellenausschreibung</strong></em></p>
<p><em>An der <a href="https://www.rewi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/br/handelsrecht/team/Lehrstuhlvertreter/Schirmer/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Professur f&uuml;r B&uuml;rgerliches Recht, Handels-, Gesellschaftsrecht, Compliance und Nachhaltigkeit</a> (Prof. Jan-Erik Schirmer) ist eine <strong>Qualifikationsstelle</strong> mit dem Ziel der <strong>Promotion</strong> als Akademische*r Mitarbeiter*in (Kenn-Nummer 1104-26-02) zu besetzen. </em></p>
<p><em><strong>Bewerbungsschluss </strong>ist der<strong> 14.06.2026.</strong></em></p>
<p><em>Unser ausf&uuml;hrliches Stellenangebot: <a href="https://www.europa-uni.de/de/universitaet/arbeitgeberin/stellenangebote/index.html#03-stellen-wiss-personal-145839624" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">www.europa-uni.de/stellenangebote</a></em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">Participation of a different kind came before the <b>Indian Supreme Court</b>: last week, it ruled on the powers of the Election Commission of India to conduct the Special Intensive Revision (SIR), a large-scale clean-up of the electoral rolls. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/sir-judgment-supreme-court-india-election-commission/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ANMOL JAIN</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(ENG) draws out comparative constitutional lessons for <em>fourth-branch institutions</em><i> </i>and electoral management bodies.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">The member states of the Council of Europe have got creative too: with the <b>Chi</b></span><b><span lang="EN-GB">&#537;</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB">in&#259;u</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Declaration, they have set out to co-define the substantive content of the ECHR&rsquo;s guarantees. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/crossing-a-line-in-plain-sight/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LINA SOPHIE M&Ouml;LLER</a></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (ENG) argues that this crosses a line no diplomatic moderation can neutralise.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">More creative still is the idea of reviving the 1952 <b>European Defence Community</b>. In his rejoinder to </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/why-the-european-defence-community-can-be-revived/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Federico Fabbrini and Franz C. Mayer</a></span><span lang="EN-GB">, </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a title="Posts by Robert Sch&uuml;tze" href="https://verfassungsblog.de/again-the-european-defence-community-is-dead/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ROBERT SCH&Uuml;TZE</a></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (ENG) takes a clear position in our debate on its revival: &ldquo;Again, the European Defence Community Is Dead, Let It Rest in Peace.&rdquo;</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">More popular is the idea of a new corporate form for the EU: the debate around the proposed <b>EU Inc.</b> has become one of the liveliest in European corporate law. The draft regulation, however, faces sharp criticism over its legal basis under Article 114 TFEU. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/eu-inc-and-the-myth-of-the-perfect-legal-basis/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WOLF-GEORG RINGE</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(ENG) shows how the constitutional debate misses the point: where there is political will, European integration has always found a legal way.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">Political will can damage the values of European integration just as easily: European judicial and professional networks continue to count <b>Poland&rsquo;s</b> PiS-captured &ldquo;courts&rdquo; among their members. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/normalising-lawlessness-via-membership/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LAURENT PECH and OLIVER MADER</a></span><span lang="EN-GB">(ENG) argue that this normalises lawlessness &ndash; and that the European Commission should act.</span></p>
</div>
<div>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">Some good news from Poland: following the CJEU&rsquo;s <em>Trojan</em> ruling, Polish courts now transcribe <b>same-sex marriages</b>concluded abroad. </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rewriting-marriage-after-trojan/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MATEUSZ W&#260;SIK</a></span> <span lang="EN-GB">(ENG) shows how they are also recognising &ldquo;weekend marriages&rdquo; &ndash; grounding recognition in constitutional and ECtHR reasoning that reaches well beyond EU free movement.</span></p>
</div>
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<p><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter-mpi/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-240x300.jpeg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-120x150.jpeg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-200x250.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-240x300.jpeg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-400x500.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-600x750.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-800x1000.jpeg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-819x1024.jpeg 819w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1200x1500.jpeg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1229x1536.jpeg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu.jpeg 1280w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-120x150.jpeg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-200x250.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-240x300.jpeg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-400x500.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-600x750.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-800x1000.jpeg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-819x1024.jpeg 819w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1200x1500.jpeg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu-1229x1536.jpeg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/SC-Dossier_instafeed_neu.jpeg 1280w" sizes="(max-width: 246px) 100vw, 246px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></p>
<p><em>What is the future of <strong>criminal and security law</strong>? Keeping up requires more than just headlines. Once a month, our new <strong>VB Security &amp; Crime Dossier</strong> brings the essential debates straight to your inbox: featuring sharp <strong>commentary</strong> at the intersection of constitutional, criminal and security law, a comprehensive <strong>debate review</strong>, and a brief <strong>&ldquo;Memo&rdquo; </strong>from our editors for a quick takeaway. In-depth, curated, and straight to the point.</em></p>
<p><em><strong>Subscribe now for free:</strong> <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter-mpi/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter-mpi/</a> (available in German only)</em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>Meanwhile, <strong>Hungary</strong> needs money to rebuild the rule of law. Unfreezing EU funds is one option, and <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/unfreezing-eu-funds-without-melting-the-rule-of-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">John Morijn and Kim Lane Scheppele</a> recently called for stricter procedural discipline in pursuing it. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/three-readings-of-one-decision/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">JOANNA DEMOPOULOU</a> (ENG) argues that the real question is not how to depoliticise this mechanism, but who should exercise its discretion.</p>
<p>Hungary&rsquo;s fresh start risks unwittingly repeating the mistakes of 1989. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-mafia-state-in-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">G&Aacute;BOR HALMAI</a> (ENG) explains why popular enthusiasm must be channelled into this <strong>constitutional moment</strong>.</p>
<p>Our symposium &ldquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/category/debates/on-law-and-politics-in-the-hungarian-transition-debates/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><strong>On Law and Politics in the Hungarian Transition</strong></a>&rdquo; (ENG) keeps turning over exactly this question. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/restoring-constitutional-justice-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">L&Aacute;SZL&Oacute; DETRE</a> observes that Hungary&rsquo;s Constitutional Court failed to prevent rule-of-law backsliding and argues for replacing its composition &ndash; but only through cross-partisan nomination, not by reproducing the very logic one seeks to undo.</p>
<p>And finally, for our June Outstanding Women portrait, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/outstanding-women-06-26/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MUSKAN KAKKAR</a> (ENG) tells the story of <strong>Shirin Ebadi</strong> &ndash; the first Muslim woman and the first Iranian to win the Nobel Peace Prize, in 2003. Her life shows how legal training can become a form of resistance, and how a person stripped of all institutional power can still use the law as a tool for justice. As she put it: &ldquo;I have a tongue in my mouth, and I will not keep quiet until the day I die.&rdquo; For her, too, the creative process seems to be a bodily one.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<p>That&rsquo;s it for this week. Take care and all the best!</p>
<p>Yours,</p>
<p>the Verfassungsblog Team</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><em>If you would like to receive the&nbsp;<strong>weekly editorial</strong> as an e-mail, you can subscribe&nbsp;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.</em></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/what-comes-to-mind/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">What Comes to Mind</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T19:57:32+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Eva Maria Bredler</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T19:57:32+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="kolumne"/>

	<category term="kreativität"/>

	<category term="legal academia"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289644</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/the-power-of-purse-iii-shifts-in-power.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Power of the Purse III:  Shifts in Power within the Executive Branch</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;As I explained
last week, President Trump has been systematically wresting away ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span>As I <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/the-power-of-purse-i-inter-branch.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explained</a>
last week, President Trump has been systematically wresting away from Congress large
parts of the Power of the Purse &ndash; the power to say what revenues will and will
not be collected and what funds will and will not be spent.<span>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>His <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/is-new-weaponization-compensation-fund.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">unlawful</a>
settlements of lawsuits with himself, paid with public funds, is but a small
part of this.<span>&nbsp; </span>Yesterday I <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/the-power-of-purse-ii-shifts-in-power.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discussed</a>
how the President&rsquo;s expanded fiscal powers have affected Congress&rsquo;s internal
organization in a way likely to permanently reduce its capacity for negotiation
and compromise.<span>&nbsp; </span>Today I explore how the Power
of the Purse&rsquo;s shift between the branches of the federal government has been
accompanied by important shift in power within the Executive Branch.<span>&nbsp; </span>In particular, power has been further
concentrated within the White House complex at the expense of the departments
and agencies and has been shifted from attorneys to political operatives.<span>&nbsp; </span>The effect of these changes, like that of
moving fiscal power from Congress to the President, has been to reduce significantly
the number of people and perspectives that influence these important decisions.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Front-line
departments and agencies historically have been the Administration&rsquo;s envoys to congressional
authorizing and appropriations committees with jurisdiction over their
activities.<span>&nbsp; </span>To be sure, the President
appoints cabinet, subcabinet, and other top officials and may direct their
actions.<span>&nbsp; </span>Nonetheless, these officials have
had a compelling reason to play a moderating role within any
administration:<span>&nbsp; </span>they are the officials
most responsible for accommodating the views of Members of Congress of both
parties to avoid political explosions.<span>&nbsp;
</span>When the White House directs them to do something that will anger
Congress, the agencies push back, with subcabinet officials reaching out to the
major organs within the White House or cabinet members engaging the President
or Chief of Staff.<span>&nbsp; </span>This was often a
messy process, but it also tempered the natural partisanship of the Executive
Branch with the bipartisan perspectives of Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Beginning with the
Reagan Administration, executive power has become increasingly concentrated in
the White House.<span>&nbsp; </span>Then-Professor Elena
Kagan celebrated this process in her famous article on <i><a href="https://harvardlawreview.org/print/no-volume/presidential-administration/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Presidential
Administration</a></i>.<span>&nbsp; </span>It has rapidly
accelerated under the second Trump Administration.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Some of the accelerating
concentration of power is the simple result of personnel.<span>&nbsp; </span>Even compared with his first Administration,
President Trump has filled many senior positions with lightweights having
minimal qualifications and little independent stature.<span>&nbsp; </span>Former Fox News commentators outnumber former
governors. <span>&nbsp;</span>By contrast, OMB Director Russell
Vought is reprising his role in the first Trump Administration; he is highly
competent and determined to achieve particular ends.<span>&nbsp; </span>Any cabinet secretary tempted to challenge
his decisions likely would be badly outmatched.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Nor are agencies fully free to strategize internally with
representatives of the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) (political
commissars?) embedded within management structures.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>More broadly, President
Trump&rsquo;s seizure of much of Congress&rsquo;s Power of the Purse has dramatically
reduced Congress&rsquo;s importance and hence the importance of agencies&rsquo; liaison
roles.<span>&nbsp; </span>Russell Vought has made clear to
agencies that money comes from OMB and that it is OMB, not Congress, that
agencies must appease.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>OMB has repurposed
the <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?hl=false&amp;edition=prelim&amp;req=granuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title31-section1512&amp;f=treesort&amp;num=0&amp;saved=%7CKHRpdGxlOjMxIHNlY3Rpb246MTUwMiBlZGl0aW9uOnByZWxpbSkgT1IgKGdyYW51bGVpZDpVU0MtcHJlbGltLXRpdGxlMzEtc2VjdGlvbjE1MDIp%7CdHJlZXNvcnQ%3D%7C%7C0%7Cfalse%7Cprelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">obscure</a>
&ldquo;<a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?hl=false&amp;edition=prelim&amp;req=granuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title31-section1513&amp;f=treesort&amp;num=0&amp;saved=%7CKHRpdGxlOjMxIHNlY3Rpb246MTUwMiBlZGl0aW9uOnByZWxpbSkgT1IgKGdyYW51bGVpZDpVU0MtcHJlbGltLXRpdGxlMzEtc2VjdGlvbjE1MDIp%7CdHJlZXNvcnQ%3D%7C%7C0%7Cfalse%7Cprelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">apportionment</a>&rdquo;
process to impose restrictions on funds that depart dramatically from the terms
of congressional appropriations.<span>&nbsp; </span>Indeed,
OMB has <a href="https://openomb.org/file/11522581" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ordered</a> agencies to
disregard Congress&rsquo;s decisions about how much should be spent on a particular
activity and obey the President&rsquo;s budget proposal that Congress rejected.<span>&nbsp; </span>Congress required apportionment decades ago
to prevent rogue agencies from spending their appropriations at an
unsustainable rate, not to empower OMB to override Congress&rsquo;s policy decisions.
</p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>President Trump
used the apportionment process during his first term to block release of aid
for Ukraine while he was trying to pressure President Zelenskyy to investigate
the Bidens.<span>&nbsp; </span>In addition to his first
impeachment, this also led to bipartisan legislation <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?hl=false&amp;edition=prelim&amp;req=granuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title31-section1513&amp;num=0&amp;saved=%7CZ3JhbnVsZWlkOlVTQy1wcmVsaW0tdGl0bGUzMS1zZWN0aW9uMTUxNA%3D%3D%7C%7C%7C0%7Cfalse%7Cprelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">requiring</a>
that all apportionments be made public.<span>&nbsp;
</span>After openly defying this requirement for months (declaring the
apportionment website down for repairs), OMB then began issuing apportionments <a href="https://openomb.org/file/11512925" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">prohibiting</a> agencies from spending
moneys Congress had appropriated until they obtained OMB approval for a
&ldquo;spending plan&rdquo;.<span>&nbsp; </span>This effectively moved the
substance of apportionments offline again.<span>&nbsp;
</span>(Prior administrations had required spending plans only in rare instances
of agencies that had proven persistently fiscally irresponsible &ndash; and then only
to ensure compliance with appropriations acts.)<span>&nbsp;
</span>Litigation eventually forced OMB to <a href="https://openomb.org/file/pdf-6b3c3fac28bcfb20243be7db755b740a" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">publish</a>
the final spending plans but leaves opaque what other OMB demands the agency
had to accept to win approval.<span>&nbsp; </span>Other
apportionments <a href="https://openomb.org/file/11521227" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">require</a> that OMB
receive advance notice, and implicitly an opportunity to forbid, expenditures
over a low threshold.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The mechanisms
evolve, but the essence is clear:<span>&nbsp;
</span>meaningful policy control is centralized within OMB.<span>&nbsp; </span>As congressional appropriations become less
important, agencies&rsquo; soft power relationships of mutual accommodation with
Congress become unnecessary and increasingly cut off.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>As Congress&rsquo;s
current views have become less important, so have the views of past Congresses encoded
in statutes.<span>&nbsp; </span>Prior to this
Administration, a consistent theme in fiscal policymaking was the need to avoid
violating the <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:31%20section:1341%20edition:prelim)%20OR%20(granuleid:USC-prelim-title31-section1341)&amp;f=treesort&amp;edition=prelim&amp;num=0&amp;jumpTo=true" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Anti-Deficiency
Act</a>.<span>&nbsp; </span>This could be done by committing
or spending money in excess of available appropriations, by spending
appropriated funds for <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title31-section1301&amp;num=0&amp;edition=prelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">purposes</a>
beyond those Congress specified or contrary to statutory limits, by <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?hl=false&amp;edition=prelim&amp;req=granuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title31-section1532&amp;f=treesort&amp;num=0&amp;saved=%7CKHRpdGxlOjMxIHNlY3Rpb246MTUzMSBlZGl0aW9uOnByZWxpbSkgT1IgKGdyYW51bGVpZDpVU0MtcHJlbGltLXRpdGxlMzEtc2VjdGlvbjE1MzEp%7CdHJlZXNvcnQ%3D%7C%7C0%7Cfalse%7Cprelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">transferring</a>
funds without statutory authority, or by spending funds without or contrary to
an <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title31-section1517&amp;num=0&amp;edition=prelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">apportionment</a>.<span>&nbsp; </span>Violations of these requirements carry <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title31-section1519&amp;num=0&amp;edition=prelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">criminal</a>
<a href="https://vifa-recht.de/uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?hl=false&amp;edition=prelim&amp;req=granuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title31-section1350&amp;f=treesort&amp;num=0&amp;saved=%7CKHRpdGxlOjMxIHNlY3Rpb246MTM0MSBlZGl0aW9uOnByZWxpbSkgT1IgKGdyYW51bGVpZDpVU0MtcHJlbGltLXRpdGxlMzEtc2VjdGlvbjEzNDEp%7CdHJlZXNvcnQ%3D%7C%7C0%7Cfalse%7Cprelim" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">penalties</a>.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Political
officials, even presidents, generally accepted that they had no right to ask
their subordinates to take fiscal actions that government lawyers said contravened
one or another statute and hence were crimes.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Presidents Obama and Biden reached disastrous fiscal deals with
congressional Republicans because their lawyers rejected numerous plausible
legal <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2021/09/what-are-options-on-debt-limit.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">theories</a>
about how they could not continue operating the federal government after it hit
the debt limit.<span>&nbsp; </span>&ldquo;The lawyers won&rsquo;t allow
it&rdquo; became an effective all-purpose brush-off officials could use on Members of
Congress, political allies, and others pressing for policy changes.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>This
Administration, seeking to &ldquo;move fast and break things&rdquo;, has largely removed
agencies counsel from making key fiscal decisions.<span>&nbsp; </span>And because those lawyers&rsquo; input largely springs
from interpreting the collective, and often bipartisan, wisdom of Congress
expressed through statutes, this move has further narrowed the inputs into
fiscal decision-making.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>As President Trump
repeatedly orders federal employees to spend money without valid
appropriations, he has had little trouble securing the cooperation of numerous
federal employees despite the Anti-Deficiency Act violations entailed.<span>&nbsp; </span>The Treasury Department&rsquo;s General Counsel did
<a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5884833-morrissey-departure-treasury-doj/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">resign</a>
rather than implement President Trump&rsquo;s &ldquo;weaponization&rdquo; compensation plan with
money from the Judgment Fund; perhaps he preferred not to commit a <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/is-new-weaponization-compensation-fund.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">felony</a>.<span>&nbsp; </span>Others presumably are counting on the Trump Justice
Department to ignore blatant violations of the Anti-Deficiency Act, which seems
likely, but also that President Trump will pardon them before leaving office to
prevent the next administration from pardoning them.<span>&nbsp; </span>They also surely are recognizing that this
Administration has largely gutted civil service protections:<span>&nbsp; </span>the price of adhering to the law is likely
losing their jobs. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>It is difficult to
convey how much of what this Administration has done that violates one or
another provision of appropriations or permanent law, and hence the
Anti-Deficiency Act.<span>&nbsp; </span>Much of what DOGE
has done, and certainly the demolition of the U.S. Agency for International
Development, the Department of Education, the Consumer Financial Protection
Board, and other agencies, would appear to violate section 739 of Division E of
this year&rsquo;s Consolidated Appropriations <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-119publ75/pdf/PLAW-119publ75.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Act</a>
and its predecessors in prior appropriations acts:</p>

<p>None of the funds made available in
this or any other appropriations Act may be used to increase, eliminate, or
reduce funding for a program, project, or activity as proposed in the
President&rsquo;s budget request for a fiscal year until such proposed change is
subsequently enacted in an appropriation Act, or unless such change is made
pursuant to the reprogramming or transfer provisions of this or any other
appropriations Act.</p>

<p>But with agencies&rsquo; counsel thoroughly marginalized, nobody
seems to care.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Many liberals
vastly underestimated the institutionally transformative accomplishments of
Ronald Reagan, a president whose intellect they disrespected.<span>&nbsp; </span>Today, many do not appreciate the depth and
likely persistence of President Trump&rsquo;s restructuring of our public
institutions.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Our next president
may be one who seeks to rationalize and regularize the MAGA regime, as George
H.W. Bush did for the Reagan Revolution.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Alternatively, our next president may be one determined to reverse much
of what President Trump has done.<span>&nbsp; </span>In
either case, the institutions of the <i>ancien r&egrave;gime</i> simply are not there
anymore.<span>&nbsp; </span>A simple restoration is
impossible just as we can never bring back the Grand Army of the Republic or
the New Deal.<span>&nbsp; </span>Those interested in
rebalancing our major institutions should be thinking about how those
institutions&rsquo; internal structures might be adjusted to support the desired
alignment. <span>&nbsp;</span>This is a deceptively
difficult challenge.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><i>@DavidASuper.bsky.social
@DavidASuper1</i></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T19:15:31+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (David Super)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T19:15:31+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289612</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/contesting-big-techs-ai-greenwashing/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Contesting Big Tech’s AI Greenwashing</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Sustainability is among the most contested topics in contemporary debates around AI. While the indus...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Sustainability is among the most contested topics in contemporary debates around AI. While the industry&rsquo;s <a href="https://ig.ft.com/ai-data-centres/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">meteoric growth</a> has sparked <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2026/jan/03/just-an-unbelievable-amount-of-pollution-how-big-a-threat-is-ai-to-the-climate" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">growing public concern</a> about its environmental impacts, Big Tech companies have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517251389853" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gone to great lengths</a> to portray AI as not just sustainable but <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2026/02/17/big-tech-greenwashing-report/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">positively good for the environment</a>. <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2026/02/17/big-tech-greenwashing-report/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Independent research</a> suggests many such claims are unsubstantiated or outright misleading.</p>
<p>One underappreciated reason this matters is that most of the Big Tech companies that <a href="https://www.common-wealth.org/publications/dynamics-of-corporate-governance-beyond-ownership-in-ai" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dominate the AI industry</a> &ndash; like Microsoft, Amazon, Meta and Google &ndash; are also consumer-facing companies. Misleading practices related to consumer transactions are illegal under EU law, and the 2024 Directive on Empowering Consumers for the Green Transition has just introduced stricter rules on greenwashing. This blog post argues that some widespread practices in the AI industry &ndash; like making vague and unsubstantiated claims about sustainability, claiming carbon neutrality targets while increasing emissions, and developing AI for use in fossil fuel production &ndash; could in some circumstances give claimants a strong case for violations of EU consumer protection law.</p>
<h2>Corporate &ldquo;sustainable AI&rdquo; messaging</h2>
<p>The AI boom has brought newfound public attention to the environmental impacts of digital infrastructure. Data centres&rsquo; energy and water use have attracted particular attention, due to the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2026/may/13/datacentres-electricity-consumption-uk-us-ai" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scale and speed</a> of construction, which is impacting local communities&rsquo; access to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/apr/09/big-tech-datacentres-water" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">water</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/19/climate/data-centers-power-bills.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">electricity</a>, as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2025.101430" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">aggregate emissions</a>. But data centres are just the tip of the iceberg. Researchers have mapped diverse environmental harms throughout <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02625-y" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">global AI value chains</a>. These include emissions, water use and pollution from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211017887" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">semiconductor manufacturing</a>; consumption of minerals like copper and rare earths (which doesn&rsquo;t just cause direct environmental harms through mining, but also <a href="https://www.latitudemedia.com/news/the-risks-of-the-ai-energy-supply-chain-overlap/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">diverts scarce resources</a> away from decarbonisation); <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43588-024-00712-6" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increased e-waste</a>; and the use of AI to facilitate harmful activities, like <a href="https://www.enabledemissions.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fossil fuel production</a>.</p>
<p>Big Tech companies have worked hard to allay such concerns. <a href="https://newclimate.org/sites/default/files/2025-09/newclimate-publication-ccrm2025-tech-jun25-update.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Amazon, Apple, Google, Microsoft and Meta</a> all have longstanding sustainability policies and carbon neutrality targets, and are major purchasers of <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/790585d4-30e7-4acb-acf2-44965042e6e8" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">carbon offsets</a> and <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/2ed922bb-266f-45cc-8930-c4ab5422bf95" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">renewable power purchase agreements</a> (though some have <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/91525419/big-tech-talks-climate-change-less-ai-data-centers" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">recently watered down</a> these commitments). They also systematically <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2025/08/23/big-techs-selective-disclosure-masks-ais-real-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">conceal key information</a> about environmental impacts, while promoting the narrative that AI will enable <a href="https://ojs.weizenbaum-institut.de/index.php/wjds/article/view/4_1_4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">long-term, economy-wide sustainability improvements</a> which outweigh its immediate environmental costs. Critics have shown that such purported benefits remain <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2026/02/17/big-tech-greenwashing-report/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">largely speculative</a>, and these companies&rsquo; sustainability initiatives are <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/ketanjoshi.co/post/3mhxmaihhus2w" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">far from sufficient</a> to counter their rapidly-growing fossil fuel consumption. This raises the question: what does EU law say about these kinds of claims?</p>
<h2>How does EU law define greenwashing?</h2>
<p>High-profile greenwashing cases have previously been brought under the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32005L0029#anx_I" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2005 Unfair Commercial Practices Directive</a> (UCPD), which bans misleading acts (Article 6) or omissions (Article 7) likely to affect the transactional decisions of an average consumer. However, the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/825/oj/eng#anx_1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2024 Directive on Empowering Consumers for the Green Transition</a> has just introduced more specific rules on greenwashing. It adds three additional categories to Annex I UCPD, which lists &ldquo;commercial practices which are in all circumstances considered unfair&rdquo;:</p>
<ul>
<li>making &ldquo;generic environmental claims&rdquo; (e.g. &ldquo;environmentally friendly&rdquo;, &ldquo;eco-friendly&rdquo; or &ldquo;green&rdquo;) without being &ldquo;able to demonstrate recognised excellent environmental performance relevant to the claim&rdquo;</li>
<li>making environmental claims about an entire product or business which actually concern only part of the product or the business&rsquo; activities</li>
<li>claiming a product is carbon neutral, or has reduced emissions or positive environmental impacts, based on offsets</li>
</ul>
<p>Many such claims could already have been challenged as misleading commercial practices. However, this requires showing that they would affect the decisions of an average consumer. Where the new rules apply, this is no longer necessary: practices listed in Annex I are always banned. This should also lead to a more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/bhj.2025.14" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">consistent EU-wide approach</a>. Member states were required to transpose the 2024 Directive by March 2026 and it should become fully applicable by September 2026, but it is already being invoked in litigation. Interestingly, it <a href="https://www.climatecasechart.com/document/greenpeace-france-and-others-v-totalenergies-se-and-totalenergies-electricite-et-gaz-france_3e1f" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">has been used</a> not just to challenge the specific practices that are now banned, but also to support the general principle that consumer interests encompass environmental concerns and greenwashing should be penalised, informing the interpretation of the more general ban on misleading practices.</p>
<p>The Commission also proposed a second <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/proposal-directive-green-claims_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Claims Directive</a> in 2023, which would require all environmental claims to be scientifically substantiated and independently verified. Whether and in what form this proposal will ultimately be passed remains uncertain, so below we focus on the existing UCPD rules, as amended by the 2024 Directive.</p>
<h2>When are sustainability claims consumer-facing practices?</h2>
<p>A key precondition for any of these rules to apply is that the UCPD only regulates &ldquo;business-to-consumer commercial practices&rdquo; which are &ldquo;directly connected with the promotion, sale or supply of a product to consumers&rdquo;. Clearly, this could only apply to consumer-facing tech companies &ndash; but as noted above, that includes most of the Big Tech companies which dominate the AI industry. &ldquo;Products&rdquo; in the UCPD also include digital services and content.</p>
<p>However, it is not enough that a <em>company</em> is generally bound by the UCPD: the greenwashing rules only apply where the specific <em>practice</em> at issue is &ldquo;directly connected&rdquo; to the promotion, sale or supply of consumer products. Under what circumstances would that apply to AI companies&rsquo; claims about sustainability?</p>
<p>The UCPD does not apply to investor-facing communications or mandatory regulatory disclosures, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40804-024-00320-x" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">corporate sustainability reports</a>. Other corporate communications, like blog posts and sustainability policies, are a grey area: they are publicly available, but generally target expert audiences more than consumers. Recital 7 UCPD states that it excludes &ldquo;commercial practices carried out primarily for other purposes&rdquo; than influencing consumer transactions, like &ldquo;annual reports and corporate promotional literature&rdquo;.&nbsp;However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.54648/cola2017033" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Anna Beckers argues</a> that sustainability policies and other &ldquo;promotional literature&rdquo; often do aim to influence consumer behaviour, by shaping public perceptions of a company, so they should be included unless they are not addressed to consumers at all.</p>
<p>This interpretation is broadly supported by a <a href="https://www.climatecasechart.com/document/greenpeace-france-and-others-v-totalenergies-se-and-totalenergies-electricite-et-gaz-france_3e1f" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">recent French ruling</a> that TotalEnergies&rsquo; claims about its net zero &ldquo;ambitions&rdquo; were misleading consumers (because it was continuing to pursue new oil and gas developments, which the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_FullVolume.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IPCC has established</a> is incompatible with the Paris targets). The court held that press statements and posts on Total&rsquo;s general corporate social media channels were not related to consumer transactions, but claims on its website were adjacent to information about consumer-facing products and aimed to influence consumer decisions. Similarly, where Big Tech companies promote claims about AI and sustainability through public-facing channels like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517251389853" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mass advertising</a> or <a href="https://perma.cc/44TP-XTGU" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">consumer-facing websites</a>, it is strongly arguable that these claims are intended to influence consumers&rsquo; decisions to use their products, and are therefore subject to the UCPD</p>
<h2>What does this mean for &ldquo;sustainable AI&rdquo; claims?</h2>
<p>Determining whether specific claims are unfair or misleading would, again, be quite fact-specific (and we hope to explore this further in future research). However, a brief survey of some existing research on Big Tech companies&rsquo; marketing and PR messaging around sustainability points to some widespread practices which could fall foul of these rules, and warrant further investigation.</p>
<p><em>Clean energy &amp; carbon neutrality</em></p>
<p>Big Tech companies <a href="https://sustainabilitymag.com/news/amazon-the-climate-pledge-catalysing-net-zero-by-2040" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">widely promote</a> and <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DKPsCHIJs1t/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">publicly advertise</a> their net zero/carbon neutrality targets. Given their <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2025/05/23/data-collection-big-tech-emissions-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">substantial (and growing) fossil fuel consumption and direct emissions</a>, these claims rely on carbon offsets and renewable power purchasing agreements. Importantly, the 2024 Directive&rsquo;s <em>per se</em> prohibition of claiming carbon neutrality based on offsets only applies to claims about specific products &ndash; not claims about a business as a whole. However, <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/3c257883-bb2a-4dd9-a6dc-501d587bb34f_en?filename=faq-empowerting-consumers-gtd.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">as the Commission&rsquo;s guidance emphasises</a>, claims that a business is carbon neutral are still subject to the generally-applicable ban on misleading practices likely to affect the decisions of an average consumer.</p>
<p>Research on corporate offsetting schemes generally, and <a href="https://links.org.au/ai-data-centres-are-fuelling-climate-destruction" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Big Tech specifically</a>, has called into question <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.ade3535" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">these schemes&rsquo; integrity</a> (e.g. the extent to which they actually make <a href="https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/entities/publication/5cdeabd2-0319-4efe-9cef-bec6130bab07" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">additional offsetting or renewables projects happen</a>, or merely take credit for existing projects). More fundamentally, the idea that corporate emissions can be &ldquo;offset&rdquo; is questionable, since the Paris targets require <a href="https://lpeproject.org/blog/net-zero-emissions-good-climate-science-bad-climate-policy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&lsquo;every feasible emission cut that can be achieved anywhere&rsquo;</a>. In practice, adding renewable capacity has historically covered <a href="https://www.iea.org/world/energy-mix" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing aggregate energy use</a>, rather than decreasing fossil fuel consumption.</p>
<p>In light of this research, companies relying on renewable power investments and offsetting schemes to support &ldquo;net zero&rdquo; claims already appear vulnerable to allegations of misleading practices. Here, such allegations would be bolstered by the fact that Big Tech companies&rsquo; emissions are not just substantial but dramatically increasing, due to their vast investments into highly computing-intensive approaches to AI development. An average consumer would probably assume that a company claiming to be committed to net zero is <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2025/05/31/the-life-and-death-of-microsofts-moonshot/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;heading towards the goal, not away from it&rdquo;</a>.</p>
<p>Importantly, the UCPD bans misleading omissions as well as explicit statements &ndash; including where &ldquo;omitted&rdquo; information is technically available, but not clearly brought to consumers&rsquo; attention (for example, where it is not <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:62015CJ0562" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in the same advert</a> as the potentially-misleading communication). Thus, where companies selectively present accurate information (e.g. that they are investing in renewable energy) but omit other relevant information (e.g. that they are also <a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2025/05/23/data-collection-big-tech-emissions-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sharply increasing</a> their fossil fuel consumption) this could also be regarded as misleading consumers, by falsely suggesting that they are shifting away from fossil fuels and towards clean energy.</p>
<p><em>Vague &ldquo;AI for sustainability&rdquo; claims</em></p>
<p><a href="https://ketanjoshi.co/2026/02/17/big-tech-greenwashing-report/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Energy and AI researcher Ketan Joshi</a> recently compiled a database of claims about how AI could promote sustainability (mostly from independent sources, but often based on company blogs or corporate research). He found that most were unsubstantiated, overtly misleading and/or excessively vague: for example, conflating relatively small-scale and efficient &ldquo;AI for sustainability&rdquo; tools with resource-intensive generative AI tools which have little to no environmental benefit.</p>
<p>If such claims are made in a context with a direct connection to the sale or promotion of consumer products, there is a strong case that they are misleading under the UCPD. Relevantly, a <a href="https://www.climatecasechart.com/document/fossielvrij-nl-v-klm_0145" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">recent Dutch case</a> against airline KLM held that claims could be misleading because they were vague and unsubstantiated, even though not strictly untrue. Vague claims that AI is good for sustainability or has a <a href="https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2025/02/13/progress-on-the-road-to-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;positive impact on the planet&rdquo;</a> could also violate the <em>per se </em>bans on unsubstantiated generic environmental claims and on broad claims which are only true of part of a company&rsquo;s activities.</p>
<p><em>AI for unsustainability?</em></p>
<p>Something else Big Tech companies tend to omit from their public-facing messaging about &ldquo;AI for sustainability&rdquo; is that AI is also widely used to optimise and scale up <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09692290.2020.1814381" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">environmentally harmful activities</a>. In the most notable example of what may be called &ldquo;AI for unsustainability&rdquo;, <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/oil-in-the-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Microsoft, Google and Amazon</a> all do significant business with fossil fuel companies and develop specialised AI services for oil and gas production. As the <a href="https://www.enabledemissions.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Enabled Emissions campaign</a> has highlighted, these projects&rsquo; climate impacts <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2024/09/microsoft-ai-oil-contracts/679804/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">could dwarf</a> companies&rsquo; offsetting and renewables initiatives &ndash; not only by increasing production from existing reserves, but also by <a href="https://www.woodmac.com/news/opinion/introducing-analogues/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">helping locate new ones</a>, and enabling efficiencies which make <a href="https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news-and-insights/latest-market-news/2610913-ai-holds-potential-to-extend-shale-era" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">more projects economically viable</a>.</p>
<p>Business-to-business transactions and marketing are not directly regulated by the UCPD. However, these activities could be relevant in establishing that Big Tech companies&rsquo; consumer-facing sustainability claims are misleading &ndash; for example, that they are omitting key information when they claim that AI is being used to accelerate the green transition, or that their net zero targets are misleading. The <a href="https://www.climatecasechart.com/document/greenpeace-france-and-others-v-totalenergies-se-and-totalenergies-electricite-et-gaz-france_3e1f" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Total </em>case</a> set a particularly important precedent by holding that it is misleading for a company to claim to be committed to net zero while pursuing new oil and gas projects.</p>
<h2>Enforcement &amp; future outlook</h2>
<p>Greenwashing has historically been one of the most common legal bases for <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/publication/global-trends-in-climate-change-litigation-2025-snapshot/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">corporate climate litigation</a>. This brief analysis suggests that leveraging EU consumer protection law could also be a promising legal route to challenge unsustainable practices in the AI industry. At a time when governments in Europe and elsewhere <a href="https://albertoalemanno.substack.com/p/the-data-centre-backlash-europe-hasnt" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">are generally committed</a> to promoting AI development, deployment and infrastructure construction, and sometimes <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2026/apr/17/microsoft-us-tech-firms-lobbied-eu-secrecy-rules-datacentre-emissions" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">actively undermining accountability</a> for environmental impacts, greenwashing lawsuits offer a route to contest companies&rsquo; environmental impacts which is not dependent on regulatory action.</p>
<p>Expectations should be realistic, however. The UCPD only applies to consumer-facing statements. That excludes more subtle and pervasive ways that Big Tech companies <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2605.06806" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">shape public debates</a> around AI and sustainability, like lobbying and research funding. The ease of enforcement will also depend significantly on national procedural frameworks. Most importantly, the remedies available are limited. Even successful greenwashing claims cannot restrict companies&rsquo; actual unsustainable business practices, but only their consumer-facing communications &ndash; typically leading to relatively small damages and/or orders to withdraw misleading claims.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, litigation can have impacts beyond these immediate legal consequences: for example, attracting media coverage and <a href="https://hal.science/hal-04766782v1/document" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">damaging companies&rsquo; reputations</a> (<a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4598145" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one recent study</a> found that media accusations of greenwashing measurably affect companies&rsquo; stock prices). It could help <a href="https://hal.science/hal-04766782v1/document" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">publicise and politicise</a> the environmental harms of AI, including underappreciated issues like &ldquo;enabled emissions&rdquo;. The strenuous efforts Big Tech companies make to present themselves and their AI tools as sustainable suggest that they would see this as a meaningful cost.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/contesting-big-techs-ai-greenwashing/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Contesting Big Tech&rsquo;s AI Greenwashing</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T10:20:14+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Rachel Griffin</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T10:20:14+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289613</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/bverfg-asylsozialrecht-existenzminimum/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Die Minimierung des Minimums</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 15. April 2026 hat das Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG) zum dritten Mal eine Grundsatzentscheidu...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Am 15. April 2026 hat das Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG) zum dritten Mal eine <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2026/04/ls20260415_1bvl000521.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Grundsatzentscheidung</a> zum Asylbewerberleistungsgesetz (AsylbLG) getroffen. Anders als in den Entscheidungen in den Jahren zuvor (<a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2012/07/ls20120718_1bvl001010.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2012</a> und <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2022/10/ls20221019_1bvl000321.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2022</a>), in denen das BVerfG die Regelungen f&uuml;r verfassungswidrig erkl&auml;rt hatte, beanstandete es die <a href="https://www.proasyl.de/pressemitteilung/30-jahre-asylbewerberleistungsgesetz-200-organisationen-fordern-seine-abschaffung/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">vielfach kritisierten</a> Leistungen diesmal nicht umfassend. Das Gericht hielt nur einen Aspekt f&uuml;r verfassungswidrig: Die Berechnungsgrundlage war veraltet und gen&uuml;gte damit nicht mehr den verfassungsrechtlichen Anforderungen. Dabei hob das BVerfG die darauf beruhenden Regelungen jedoch weder auf noch veranlasste es R&uuml;ckzahlungen. Die Entscheidung f&uuml;gt sich in einen gr&ouml;&szlig;eren Kontext zunehmend restriktiver Migrationskontrollen ein &ndash; und offenbart innere Grenzpolitiken, die abgesenkte Minimalstandards f&uuml;r bestimmte Personengruppen legitimieren.</p>
<h2>Das AsylbLG als Sonderleistungsrecht</h2>
<p>Das AsylbLG ist ein kurzes Gesetz, hat jedoch gro&szlig;e Relevanz: Das Gesetz regelt den Anwendungsbereich, Umfang und Modus der Sozialleistungsgew&auml;hrung f&uuml;r Asylsuchende und andere Personengruppen mit prek&auml;rem Rechtsstatus aus &bdquo;Drittstaaten&ldquo;. Trotz seiner K&uuml;rze ist das AsylbLG recht kompliziert &ndash; dies ergibt sich vor allem aus der verzweigten Verweisstruktur und der <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/kohaerentes-asyl-und-aufenthaltsrecht-statt-legislativer-hyperaktivitaet/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">im Migrationsrecht weit verbreiteten &Auml;nderungsfrequenz</a>. Die Systematik des AsylbLG teilt sich einerseits in Grundleistungen (der Anwendungsbereich ergibt sich aus &sect; 1 AsylbLG) und anderseits in sogenannte Analogleistungen auf: W&auml;hrend die Analogleistungen (&sect;&nbsp;2&nbsp;AsylbLG), die AsylbLG-Berechtigte, die sich seit 36 Monaten im Bundesgebiet aufhalten, erhalten, das Leistungsniveau des Sozialgesetzbuchs (SGB) XII erreichen, liegen die Grundleistungen (&sect;&sect;&nbsp;3,&nbsp;3a&nbsp;AsylbLG) weit unter den S&auml;tzen der SGBs. Dass die Grundsicherung in diese verschiedenen Zweige aufgeteilt ist, ist Ergebnis des &bdquo;Asylkompromisses&ldquo; von 1993. Mit dieser Reform wurde auch das Grundrecht auf Asyl gem&auml;&szlig; Art. 16a GG faktisch abgeschafft &ndash; ein Wendepunkt der deutschen Migrationspolitik.</p>
<p>W&auml;hrend die Sozialgesetzb&uuml;cher das menschenw&uuml;rdige Existenzminimum, das sich <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2010/02/ls20100209_1bvl000109.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nach dem BVerfG</a> &bdquo;nur auf diejenigen Mittel [&hellip;], die zur Aufrechterhaltung eines menschenw&uuml;rdigen Daseins unbedingt erforderlich sind&ldquo; erstreckt, f&uuml;r erwerbsf&auml;hige und nicht erwerbsf&auml;hige Personen mit deutschem Pass oder gesichertem Aufenthaltstitel gew&auml;hrleisten sollen, ist das AsylbLG das entsprechende Pendant f&uuml;r Drittstaatsangeh&ouml;rige mit unsicherem Aufenthaltstitel (wie einer Duldung). Die einfachgesetzliche Ausgestaltung des Existenzminimums im Sozialrecht ist Ausfluss des entsprechenden Grundrechtes auf Gew&auml;hrleistung eines menschenw&uuml;rdigen Existenzminimums aus Art. 1&nbsp;Abs.&nbsp;1 i.V.m. Art. 20&nbsp;Abs. 1 GG. Dieses steht, nach der <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2012/07/ls20120718_1bvl001010.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG-Entscheidung von 2012</a>, &bdquo;deutschen und ausl&auml;ndischen Staatsangeh&ouml;rigen, die sich in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland aufhalten, gleicherma&szlig;en zu&ldquo;.</p>
<p>Bereits w&auml;hrend des <a href="https://www.asyl.net/fileadmin/user_upload/beitraege_asylmagazin/Beitraege_AM_2025/AM_25_10-11_beitrag_kessler_von_harbou.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">urspr&uuml;nglichen AsylbLG-Gesetzgebungsprozesses</a> im Jahr 1993 wurde die differenzielle Gew&auml;hrleistung von Sozialleistungen nach Staatsangeh&ouml;rigkeit und dem rechtlich zugewiesenen Status kritisiert: Denn, wieso sollte ein gefl&uuml;chteter Mensch weniger zum existenziellen &Uuml;berleben ben&ouml;tigen als eine Person mit deutschem Pass? Mittlerweile ist das Gesetz <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/30-jahre-sonderrecht/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&uuml;ber 30 Jahre alt</a> und steht nach wie vor in der Kritik: Die Bedarfsstufenh&ouml;he der Grundleistungen liegt knapp 20 % unter den S&auml;tzen der Sozialgesetzb&uuml;cher. Zudem ist der Zugang zu Gesundheitsleistungen auf akute Erkrankungen und Schmerzzust&auml;nde beschr&auml;nkt und wird nicht durch die Krankenkassen gedeckt, sondern durch die zust&auml;ndige Beh&ouml;rde &bdquo;sichergestellt&ldquo; (&sect; 4 Abs. 3 AsylbLG). Seit 2023 d&uuml;rfen Kommunen <a href="https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/20/107/2010722.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bundesweit</a> Bezahlkarten einf&uuml;hren, die die autonome Lebensf&uuml;hrung von AsylbLG-Berechtigten sowie den <a href="https://www.dezim-institut.de/fileadmin/user_upload/fis/publikation_pdf/FA-6050.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zugang zum Arbeitsmarkt</a> weiter einschr&auml;nken. Die vorgebrachte Zielsetzung, &bdquo;den Verwaltungsaufwand bei den Kommunen zu minimieren&ldquo;, <a href="https://mediendienst-integration.de/fluechtlinge/sozialleistungen/bezahlkarte-fuer-asylbewerber/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ist gescheitert</a>. Die Bezahlkarte steht damit exemplarisch vor allem f&uuml;r die zunehmende Kontrolle, Repression und Disziplinierung von Schutzsuchenden.</p>
<h2>Existenzminimum &bdquo;nur teilweise&ldquo; verletzt</h2>
<p>In dem neuen Beschluss stellte das BVerfG nunmehr fest, dass die Leistungen f&uuml;r geduldete Personen in Bedarfsstufe 1 (alleinstehende Erwachsene) bzw. 5 (Kinder vom Beginn des siebten bis zur Vollendung des 14. Lebensjahres) im Ausgangspunkt mit den verfassungsrechtlichen Vorgaben vereinbar waren. Auch die Berechnungsmethode beanstandete das Gericht nicht &ndash; einen Versto&szlig; gegen Art. 1 Abs. 1 GG i.V.m. Art.&nbsp;20&nbsp;Abs.&nbsp;1&nbsp;GG erkannte es dennoch: Die Berechnungsgrundlage von 2008 war nicht aktuell genug. Das Verfahren wurde urspr&uuml;nglich von zwei eritreischen Staatsangeh&ouml;rigen vor den Sozialgerichten gef&uuml;hrt und bezog sich auf Leistungen im Zeitraum vom 1. September 2018 bis zum 20. August 2019. Das Landessozialgericht Niedersachsen-Bremen (LSG) setzte das Verfahren aus und legte es dem BVerfG im Rahmen einer <a href="https://voris.wolterskluwer-online.de/browse/document/43ba6427-09b6-46f4-8f5e-aa48b49c5fac" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">konkreten Normenkontrolle</a> vor &ndash; das LSG war also von der Verfassungswidrigkeit der Geldbetr&auml;ge gem. &sect; 3 Abs. 2 S. 5 i.V.m. &sect; 3 Abs. 1 S. 8 Nr. 1 und 5 AsylbLG (jeweils a.F.) &uuml;berzeugt (vgl. Art. 100 Abs. 1 GG).</p>
<p>Hiergegen entschied das BVerfG, dass die entsprechenden Grundleistungen nicht evident unzureichend waren. Verfassungswidrig w&auml;ren die Leistungen nur dann, wenn sie &bdquo;die physische Existenz des Menschen, die M&ouml;glichkeit zur Pflege zwischenmenschlicher Beziehungen und ein Mindestma&szlig; an Teilhabe am gesellschaftlichen, kulturellen und politischen Leben (&hellip;) keinesfalls mehr sicherstellen konnten&ldquo; (Rn. 134). Diese Schwelle sah das Gericht, anders als in der <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2012/07/ls20120718_1bvl001010.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Entscheidung von 2012</a>, nicht als unterschritten an.</p>
<p>Das BVerfG hielt das Existenzminimum dennoch f&uuml;r &bdquo;teilweise verletzt&ldquo; (Rn. 114). Grund hierf&uuml;r ist die mangelnde Aktualisierung der Leistungsh&ouml;he. Die Gesetzgeberin m&uuml;sse &bdquo;die Bedarfe Hilfebed&uuml;rftiger zeitgerecht erfassen&ldquo; (Rn. 199). Die Leistungsh&ouml;he der AsylbLG-S&auml;tze wird, wie die der SGBs, auf Grundlage der Einkommens- und Verbrauchsstichprobe (EVS) festgesetzt. Die Leistungen, die den Kl&auml;ger*innen im September 2018 gew&auml;hrt wurden, basierten allerdings auf der EVS 2008 und waren daher veraltet. Weil die Erhebung der EVS &bdquo;bereits rund zehn Jahre&ldquo; zur&uuml;cklag, w&uuml;rden die Leistungen gegen das Verfassungsgebot versto&szlig;en, den Bedarf stets auf aktueller Grundlage zu ermitteln (Rn. 200). Eine Nachzahlung aufgrund dieses Verfassungsversto&szlig;es ordnete das BVerfG allerdings nicht an (Rn. 224).</p>
<h2>Ungesicherte Bleibeperspektive als Ausgangspunkt</h2>
<p>Was das BVerfG zudem nicht beanstandete, waren die Berechnung und H&ouml;he der Leistungen. Dass die Gesetzgeberin entsprechende EVS-Daten heranzieht und damit auch den Konsum von Personen in ganz anderen Lebenslagen zugrunde legt, h&auml;lt das Gericht f&uuml;r &bdquo;tragf&auml;hig begr&uuml;ndbar&ldquo; (Rn. 136). Auch eine andere Regelung, die in den Stellungnahmen (vgl. bspw. <a href="https://www.proasyl.de/wp-content/uploads/220930_AsylbLG_BVerfG_Stellungnahme_1_BvL_5-21-VG.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>) vielfach kritisiert wurde, hielt das Gericht f&uuml;r &bdquo;hinreichend nachvollziehbar&ldquo; (Rn. 137 ff.): Der Gesetzgeber klammerte bestimmte Bedarfe spezifisch f&uuml;r AsylbLG-Berechtigte mit Blick auf die ungesicherte Aufenthaltsperspektive dieser Personengruppe aus. Unter die Bedarfe, die die Gesetzgeberin als f&uuml;r Asylsuchende nicht existenznotwendig ansieht, fallen etwa Kultur- und Sportausr&uuml;stung (Rn. 150) oder au&szlig;erschulischer Unterricht f&uuml;r Erwachsene (Rn. 152). Das BVerfG argumentiert, dass diese Entscheidungen in den legislativen Gestaltungsspielraum fielen, der mit normativen Wertungen gef&uuml;llt werden d&uuml;rfe. Und obwohl das BVerfG betont, es d&uuml;rfe &bdquo;nicht pauschal nach dem Aufenthaltsstatus&ldquo; differenziert werden (Rn. 121), l&auml;sst es eine Differenzierung nach der Bleibeperspektive (vgl. z.B. Rn. 135) &ndash; die sich allein aus dem Aufenthaltsstatus ergibt &ndash; zu. Das erscheint h&ouml;chst widerspr&uuml;chlich: Wenn es der Gesetzgeberin nicht erlaubt ist, direkt an den Aufenthaltsstatus anzukn&uuml;pfen, sie jedoch Bezug auf die begrenzte Bleibeperspektive (die faktisch nur bei Personen in prek&auml;ren Migrationsrechtsstatus eine Rolle spielen d&uuml;rfte) nimmt &ndash; wird dann nicht sehr wohl an den Aufenthaltsstatus angekn&uuml;pft?</p>
<p>Der mit Gegenstimmen (ein Sondervotum wurde jedoch nicht ver&ouml;ffentlicht) ergangene Beschluss bezieht sich auf einen spezifischen Zeitraum. Dennoch hat er grunds&auml;tzliche Bedeutung &ndash; auch f&uuml;r die heutigen AsylbLG-Leistungen. 2012 entschied das BVerfG noch, dass das Grundrecht auf Gew&auml;hrleistung eines menschenw&uuml;rdigen Existenzminimums allen Personen, ganz unabh&auml;ngig von der Staatsb&uuml;rger*innenschaft, <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2012/07/ls20120718_1bvl001010.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gleicherma&szlig;en zustehe</a> (Ls. 2). In der aktuellen Entscheidung hat der Erste Senat zwar formal an seinen Leitlinien von 2012 festgehalten (vgl. bspw. Rn. 121), materiell aber eine andere Richtung eingeschlagen: F&uuml;r Personen mit einem entsprechend prekarisierten Rechtsstatus k&ouml;nne ein anderes Existenzminimum gelten als f&uuml;r solche mit gesichertem Aufenthaltsstatus &ndash; angekn&uuml;pft an und gerechtfertigt durch ihre, auch rechtlich bedingte (begrenzte) Bleibeperspektive in Deutschland. Insbesondere bei der &bdquo;sozio-kulturellen&ldquo; Seite, also der Komponente des Existenzminimums, die &uuml;ber das rein physische &Uuml;berleben hinausgeht und die <a href="https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/928920/816c887849ea514135590b3c495aff29/WD-6-097-22-pdf-data.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sozialen Bez&uuml;ge</a> der menschlichen Existenz sicherstellen soll, kommt der Gesetzgeberin ein weiter(er) Gestaltungsspielraum zu, so das BVerfG (Rn. 119). Daher sei es dem Gesetzgeber auch m&ouml;glich, das SGB-Niveau zu unterbieten. Die soziokulturelle Entbehrung verfestigt aber gerade die Prekarisierung, erschwert systematisch die gesellschaftliche Teilhabe und l&auml;sst potenzielle Bleibeperspektiven in die Ferne r&uuml;cken.</p>
<h2>Wer bietet weniger?</h2>
<p>Das AsylbLG hat sich in den letzten Jahren als Teil eines Unterbietungswettbewerbs verschiedener Regierungskoalitionen zudem weiter versch&auml;rft: Beispielsweise ist der Zeitraum, in dem Personen im gegen&uuml;ber dem SGB-Niveau limitierten Existenzminimum ausharren m&uuml;ssen, von 15 Monaten erst auf <a href="https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/19/107/1910706.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">18</a> und nunmehr auf <a href="https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/20/100/2010090.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">36</a> Monate erh&ouml;ht worden. Ob die reduzierten Leistungss&auml;tze in diesem extensivierten Zeitraum noch verfassungsgem&auml;&szlig; w&auml;ren, bleibt <a href="https://www.proasyl.de/pressemitteilung/pro-asyl-asylbewerberleistungsgesetz-weiterhin-verfassungsrechtlich-hoechst-fragwuerdig/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">h&ouml;chst fragw&uuml;rdig</a>. Auch die Leistungsausschl&uuml;sse, insbesondere f&uuml;r sog. Dublin-Gefl&uuml;chtete, hat der Gesetzgeber erweitert und werden nun von verschiedenen Gerichten &uuml;berpr&uuml;ft. Vor dem UN-Sozialausschuss ist ein entsprechendes Individualbeschwerdeverfahren <a href="https://freiheitsrechte.org/themen/soziale-teilhabe/existenzielle-not" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">anh&auml;ngig</a>, das zu einer R&uuml;ge (sog. <em>interim measures</em>) gegen&uuml;ber Deutschland gef&uuml;hrt hat. Dies hat die Bundesregierung bisher <a href="https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/innenpolitik/dublin-fluechtlinge-leistungen-un-100.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unbeeindruckt</a> hingenommen. Parallel hat der Europ&auml;ische Gerichtshof (EuGH) &uuml;ber die mittlerweile festgezurrte Regelung zur Leistungsk&uuml;rzung f&uuml;r &bdquo;Dublin-Gefl&uuml;chtete&ldquo; <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document/C/2024/C-0621-24-00000000RP-01-P-01/ARRET/321768-DE-1-html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">entschieden</a> und, in &Uuml;bereinstimmung mit den <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document/C/2024/C-0621-24-00000000RP-01-P-01/CONCL/305230-DE-1-html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Schlussantr&auml;ge</a>n des Generalanwalts, klargestellt: &sect; 1a Abs. 7 AsylbLG a.F.ist mit dem nach der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:180:0096:0116:DE:PDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EU-Aufnahmerichtlinie</a> zu gew&auml;hrleistenden Recht auf einen &bdquo;angemessenen Lebensstandard&ldquo; (Art. 17 Abs. 2) nicht vereinbar &ndash; und damit europarechtswidrig. F&uuml;r die 2024 eingef&uuml;gte und noch versch&auml;rfte Parallelregelung des &sect; 1 Abs. 4 S. 1 Nr. 2 AsylbLG d&uuml;rfte dies erst recht gelten.</p>
<p>Insgesamt legitimiert die neue BVerfG-Entscheidung eine politische Entwicklung der letzten Jahre: Die Politik nutzt das Sozialrecht, um bestimmte Personen(-gruppen) auszugrenzen &ndash; und &bdquo;internalisiert&ldquo; damit zunehmend europ&auml;ische Grenzlogiken. Innerstaatliche Migrationskontrolle nimmt zwar tendenziell subtilere Repressionsformen an als etwa Pushbacks an den EU-Au&szlig;engrenzen, weniger gewaltvoll sind sie deshalb nicht. Unmittelbar verhandelt wird die Frage: Wer geh&ouml;rt zur imaginierten (und vermeintlich homogenen) &bdquo;Gemeinschaft&ldquo;? Und wer wird, basierend auf Staatsb&uuml;rger*innenschaft, (fehlender) &bdquo;Integrationstiefe&ldquo; und Rechtsstatus, als &bdquo;nicht zugeh&ouml;rig&ldquo; markiert?</p>
<h2>Die Grenzen im Sozialstaat</h2>
<p>Auf dem Feld des Migrations&bdquo;sozial&ldquo;rechts wird also gerungen &ndash; insbesondere um Gemeinschaft, Zugeh&ouml;rigkeit und Ausgrenzung. Dies gilt nicht nur in Deutschland, sondern kann als europ&auml;ischer Trend gesehen werden (siehe hierzu ein k&uuml;rzlich ergangenes <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document/C/2022/C-0747-22-00000000RP-01-P-01/ARRET/320368-DE-1-html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EuGH-Urteil</a> gegen Italien), in dem das Sozialrecht zunehmend f&uuml;r soziale Ausgrenzung genutzt wird. Mit der neuesten Entscheidung zementiert das BVerfG die M&ouml;glichkeit der Gesetzgeberin, Sozialleistungen f&uuml;r manche Gruppen auf ein minimiertes Minimum zur&uuml;ckzuschrauben, und legitimiert damit Grenzlogiken im Landesinneren. Die Frage ist insofern nicht mehr, ob das Existenzminimum migrationspolitisch relativiert wird &ndash; sondern wie weit diese Relativierung noch gehen wird.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/bverfg-asylsozialrecht-existenzminimum/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Die Minimierung des Minimums</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T09:25:57+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Luise Freitag</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T09:25:57+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="asylbewerberleistungsgesetz"/>

	<category term="asylsozialrecht"/>

	<category term="bverfg"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="existenzminimum"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289583</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/51-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Wie politisch darf Recht sein? Persönliche Eindrücke von der 66. JTÖR</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von JAN VAN DEN HOFF Die 66. Junge Tagung &Ouml;ffentliches Recht widmete sich einer Frage, die Wissensch...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von JAN VAN DEN HOFF Die 66. Junge Tagung &Ouml;ffentliches Recht widmete sich einer Frage, die Wissenschaft, Justiz und Gesellschaft gleicherma&szlig;en besch&auml;ftigt: Wie politisch darf Recht sein? Der folgende Beitrag gibt einige pers&ouml;nliche Eindr&uuml;cke von der Tagung wieder. Im Mittelpunkt stehen ausgew&auml;hlte Vortr&auml;ge und Diskussionen, die den Blick auf die Rolle von Gerichten im politischen...</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T08:00:57+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gastautor</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T08:00:57+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="allgemein"/>

	<category term="gericht"/>

	<category term="jtoer"/>

	<category term="jtör"/>

	<category term="justiz"/>

	<category term="politisches recht"/>

	<category term="tagungen"/>

	<category term="verfassung"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-05:/289581</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/decorative-by-design/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Decorative by Design</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>FIFA&rsquo;s climate criteria for World Cup hosts borrow the authority of international climate law withou...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>FIFA&rsquo;s climate criteria for World Cup hosts borrow the authority of international climate law without absorbing any enforcement consequence. The 2026 host country&rsquo;s withdrawal from the parent treaty regime exposes the borrowing as decorative. On 27 January 2026 the United States ceased to be a party to the <a href="https://eelp.law.harvard.edu/tracker/paris-climate-agreement" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Paris Agreement</a>. Three weeks earlier, the Trump administration announced its intention to withdraw from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as well, with effect from January 2027. On 11 June 2026, the US opens the tournament whose hosting bid promised environmental leadership and an emissions trajectory aligned with the Paris Agreement. FIFA&rsquo;s regulatory framework treats this contradiction as a non-event, and not because of a drafting oversight.</p>
<p>Journalistic commentary anticipated the political problem. <a href="https://www.playthegame.org/news/trump-fifa-and-the-world-cup-2026-a-match-made-in-climate-hell/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Walters</a> argued in March 2025 that the United States should be stripped of hosting rights on climate grounds. The doctrinal question is different: what exactly do FIFA&rsquo;s climate criteria oblige, against whom, and through what mechanism? The answer, on close reading, is that they oblige very little.</p>
<h2>What the Bid Promised</h2>
<p>FIFA&rsquo;s bidding requirements for the 2026 tournament direct hosting associations, in substance, to show leadership on climate, to engage with the UN <a href="https://unfccc.int/climate-action/sectoral-engagement/sports-for-climate-action" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sports for Climate Action Framework</a>, and to maintain emissions reduction plans aligned with the Paris Agreement or with national climate policy. Fossil Free Football, summarising the <a href="https://www.fossilfreefootball.org/2025/11/28/2026-fifa-world-cup-factsheet/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">latest bid requirements</a>, records FIFA&rsquo;s expectation that prospective hosts &ldquo;show leadership in climate action&rdquo;, seek to join the UN Sports for Climate Action net-zero pledge, and maintain emissions reduction plans &ldquo;in line with the Paris Agreement&rdquo;. The substantive criteria mirror the broader <a href="https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/a6e93d3f1e33b09/original/FIFA-Climate-Strategy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">FIFA Climate Strategy</a> commitments adopted at COP26.</p>
<p>The United Bid Book, submitted in March 2018 by the football associations of the United States, Canada and Mexico, represented compliance unequivocally. The bid affirmed that, in its language as reported by Walters, &ldquo;the United States remains committed to being a leader in environmental protection&rdquo;, and pledged to &ldquo;establish new standards for environmental sustainability in sport&rdquo;. FIFA&rsquo;s <a href="https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/55d1d154bdd6324/original/ir3g14juxglqbbteevvf-pdf.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bid Evaluation Report</a> recorded that the United bid had been &ldquo;assessed for sustainability, its adherence to human rights and labour standards, and its plans for environmental protection&rdquo;.</p>
<p>Both representations are now factually defunct. The Paris Agreement no longer binds the United States. The UNFCCC will no longer bind it once the <a href="https://unfccc.int/resource/ccsites/tanzania/conven/text/art25.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one-year notice period</a> under Article 25(2) elapses. The country&rsquo;s <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/128687/implications-us-withdrawal-unfccc/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nationally determined contribution</a>, the formal climate action plan to which FIFA&rsquo;s emissions criterion alternatively refers, has been formally rescinded and not replaced. The bid book promise of environmental leadership has been overtaken by executive orders declaring a national energy emergency and directing maximum fossil-fuel extraction. Independent analysis projects the 2026 tournament&rsquo;s emissions at approximately <a href="https://www.sgr.org.uk/publications/fifa-s-climate-blind-spot-men-s-world-cup-warming-world" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">9 million tonnes of CO2-equivalent</a>, roughly double the historical average.</p>
<p>A reasonable observer would expect this to engage some mechanism within FIFA&rsquo;s regulatory framework. It engages none.</p>
<h2>The Borrowed Benchmark Problem</h2>
<p>The drafting of the climate criterion deserves close reading. It references the Paris Agreement <em>as a benchmark for the host&rsquo;s plan</em>, not as an obligation incorporated into FIFA&rsquo;s own rules. The duty is to <em>have</em> a plan of action aligned with the Agreement. Three structural weaknesses follow.</p>
<p>First, the obligation runs to the existence of a plan at the bidding stage, not to its continuing operation. A bidder satisfies the clause by submitting a document. FIFA has no post-award review keyed to whether that document remains in force. Second, the disjunctive coupling of the Paris benchmark with &ldquo;the country&rsquo;s climate action plans&rdquo; makes the international standard substitutable with whatever domestic policy the host happens to maintain. When the host&rsquo;s domestic plan is itself rescinded, the clause loses both limbs at once, but produces no event of default. Third, &ldquo;in line with&rdquo; is a benchmark formulation. It is not an incorporation by reference of the underlying Treaty&rsquo;s substantive standards. It is therefore not justiciable on its own terms.</p>
<p>The contrast with how <em>lex sportiva</em> incorporates other public-law standards is instructive. <a href="https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/3815fa68bd9f4ad8/original/FIFA_Statutes_2022-EN.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 3 of the FIFA Statutes</a> provides that &ldquo;FIFA is committed to respecting all internationally recognised human rights and shall strive to promote the protection of these rights&rdquo;. This is an internal obligation binding FIFA bodies and officials. Its incorporation triggered the development of a <a href="https://media.business-humanrights.org/media/documents/files/documents/FIFAs_Human_Rights_Policy_0.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Human Rights Policy</a>, a human rights advisory board, and an evolving practice of pre-award and post-award due diligence which CAS panels have begun to engage. The climate criteria have no Statute counterpart, no policy elaboration of comparable depth, and no equivalent migration into the post-award supervisory architecture.</p>
<h2>The Architecture of Non-Enforcement</h2>
<p>Recent doctrinal work makes the structural gap visible. In a comparative study of the 2026 FIFA Host City Agreement, the contract concluded between FIFA and each host city, and the 2028 Los Angeles Olympic Host City Contract, Erard demonstrates that the FIFA agreement operates as a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40318-025-00314-y" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one-way option agreement</a>. FIFA may &ldquo;make specifications, modifications, reductions and/or enhancements&rdquo; of the contract and may revoke Host City status for non-compliance &ldquo;regardless of reason&rdquo;. The asymmetry is striking. FIFA has reserved sweeping unilateral powers in matters that affect its commercial interests, including tax exemptions, intellectual-property protections and visa facilitation. It has reserved none in matters that affect the climate representations underpinning the award.</p>
<p>The Court of Arbitration for Sport is the natural forum for any dispute arising under FIFA&rsquo;s regulatory instruments. But CAS adjudication of a climate-conditionality claim would presuppose three things FIFA has not provided: an obligation drafted as such rather than as a representation, a claimant with standing under the relevant arbitration clause, and a defined remedy keyed to the breach. As <a href="https://tilburglawreview.com/articles/10.5334/tilr.189" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Duval</a> has observed in the human rights context, the introduction of substantive standards into FIFA&rsquo;s regulatory architecture creates the conditions for CAS engagement only when those standards are drafted to be engaged. The climate criteria are not.</p>
<p>Swiss contract law, FIFA&rsquo;s <em>lex contractus</em>, provides a thin alternative route. The United Bid Book contains representations on which the award decision was at least partly premised. Misrepresentation by the bidder, where material to the contract&rsquo;s formation, can in principle vitiate consent under Articles 23 and following of the Swiss Code of Obligations. The argument is theoretically available but practically dormant: FIFA is the party that would have to bring it, and FIFA has shown no appetite for doing so. The route exists but it is not used.</p>
<p>The result is what one might call a <em>representational</em> obligation. The host represents at the bidding stage that its climate trajectory will align with international standards. If that representation later turns false, the falsity does not constitute a breach because the clause was never structured to be breached. It was structured to be cited.</p>
<h2>Beyond the United States</h2>
<p>The 2026 case is starker than what follows, but the architectural defect persists. The 2030 World Cup will be co-hosted by Morocco, Portugal and Spain, with single matches in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. The 2034 tournament has been awarded to Saudi Arabia, a state whose climate policy is structurally tied to its position as the world&rsquo;s largest fossil-fuel exporter. The same bidding framework applied to both selections. FIFA&rsquo;s <a href="https://inside.fifa.com/organisation/media-releases/bid-evaluation-reports-for-2030-and-2034-editions-of-fifa-world-cup-tm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2030 and 2034 Bid Evaluation Reports</a>, as <a href="https://carbonmarketwatch.org/2024/12/20/fifas-foul-irresponsible-farcical-and-absurd-approach-to-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Carbon Market Watch</a> and <a href="https://www.fossilfreefootball.org/2024/12/02/low-risk-on-sustainability-fifas-ludicrous-evaluation-of-world-cup-bids/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Fossil Free Football</a> have observed, characterised the sustainability dimensions of both bids in the same representational register, with the same absence of post-award triggers, and assigned a &ldquo;low risk&rdquo; rating despite the multi-continental travel footprint of 2030 and the structural fossil-fuel dependence of 2034. The 2026 case is not an outlier within FIFA&rsquo;s framework. It is the framework working as designed.</p>
<p>A defender of the current approach might respond that climate is a state-level concern beyond a private federation&rsquo;s competence, and that asking FIFA to police treaty compliance overstates its institutional reach. The objection misunderstands what the clauses purport to do. FIFA itself elevated climate to a bidding criterion. Having done so, the federation cannot consistently disclaim responsibility for whether the criterion has any operative content. The choice is between conditionality and decoration; the present framework chose decoration while keeping the appearance of conditionality.</p>
<h2>What Real Conditionality Would Require</h2>
<p>Three minimum design features would make FIFA&rsquo;s climate criteria operative. First, treaty status would have to function as a continuing eligibility condition, not as a one-time bidding representation. Withdrawal from the UNFCCC or Paris Agreement after award would constitute a defined material breach. Second, the Host City Agreement would have to incorporate climate compliance into its termination and relocation triggers on the same footing as the existing commercial triggers, so that the contractual machinery responds when the substantive obligation fails. Third, an independent compliance mechanism, with standing for member associations and a defined CAS pathway, would have to permit post-award review of whether the host&rsquo;s climate trajectory remains aligned with the stated benchmark.</p>
<p>None of this is exotic. The IOC has gestured toward operationalising sustainability through <a href="https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/What-We-Do/Olympic-agenda/Olympic-Agenda-2020-5-15-recommendations.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Olympic Agenda 2020+5</a>, though with parallel enforcement gaps. What the 2026 World Cup provides is a uniquely clean test instance: a host country exits the very treaty regime its bid invoked, before the tournament has kicked off, and the regulatory framework registers no consequence. If that fact pattern does not provoke reform of <em>lex sportiva</em>&rsquo;s climate architecture, the climate clauses in FIFA&rsquo;s bidding rules will continue to function as they were drafted to function, which is to say not at all.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/decorative-by-design/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Decorative by Design</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-05T07:31:00+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Marta Liduma</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-05T07:31:00+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="cas"/>

	<category term="climate"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="fifa"/>

	<category term="paris agreement"/>

	<category term="unfccc"/>

	<category term="usa"/>

	<category term="world cup"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-04:/289562</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/its-all-politics.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">It&#039;s All Politics</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Well, they did it: On Tuesday evening, the Supreme Court found a way to make Callais worse.&nbsp; Th...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Well, they did it: On Tuesday evening, the Supreme Court found a way to make <i>Callais</i> worse.&nbsp; They actually found several: they made an absolute partisan joke of the &ldquo;Purcell principle&rdquo;; they flagrantly, ostentatiously violated their own prior opinion in the long Alabama litigation in which they issued Tuesday&rsquo;s order; they rewarded Alabama&rsquo;s defiance of federal court orders; and they offered so very little in the way of reasoning as to make their action difficult to interpret as anything but lawless partisanship. But most importantly&mdash;and here finally we come to my topic in this blog post&mdash;SCOTUS did it by making the key implausible claim at the heart of <i>Louisiana v. Callais</i>, about racially polarized voting, just slightly sharper and more indefensible than it already was.</p><p>The official view of the Roberts Court is now as follows.&nbsp; If every single Black person votes one way, and every single white person votes the opposite way, in every single election, forever, that is <i>not even relevant</i> to the question of whether voting is &ldquo;racially polarized,&rdquo; so long as this enduring disagreement crystallizes into <i>political parties</i>, meaning that the two groups populate two different parties.</p><p>And that is exactly what strong and enduring political disagreements tend to do.&nbsp; I mean, where do you think political parties come from?&nbsp; Sometimes a political disagreement is so deep, so durable, so all-encompassing, that it becomes the politics-structuring disagreement around which all other questions orbit. Then the political parties are going to try to organize themselves around that disagreement because that is what political parties are for.</p><p>The polarization between Black voters and white voters in Alabama is so extreme and so durable, from the Civil War all the way through the present, that it has outlasted <i>a complete flip in the party labels</i>.&nbsp; Like strong magnets that flip all the way around instead of getting smushed together the wrong way, racial polarization in Alabama is so powerful that after Black Republicans became Democrats, white Democrats eventually had to become Republicans. Functional political parties reflect the most important political disagreements or cleavages in their polity. That&rsquo;s their job.&nbsp; In Alabama, the most important political cleavage in the state is clearly racial polarization.&nbsp; Alabama is the second most racially polarized state in the nation.*</p><p><span></span></p><a name="more"></a>* * *<p></p><p>The Supreme Court has a different defniton of racial polarization&mdash;one that seems to suggest Alabama may not be racially polarized at all.&nbsp; In <i>Callais</i>, a month ago, Justice Alito <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/did:plc:lk7uo6am33d4qdo6q4znzxuk/post/3mne2vqqt6k2z" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">said</a> Voting Rights Act (VRA) plaintiffs must show &ldquo;racial bloc voting that cannot be explained by partisan affiliation.&rdquo;&nbsp; Last night&rsquo;s <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/25pdf/25a1314_7m58.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">order</a> in <i>Allen v. Milligan</i> sharpened the point: &ldquo;The mere fact that voters of different races vote for different parties <i>is</i> <i>not relevant</i> to proving racially polarized voting patterns.&rdquo; (emphasis added).</p><p>Not even relevant?&nbsp; That&rsquo;s bold.</p><p>Suppose there&rsquo;s an election where the two candidates on the ballot are A and B.&nbsp; How <i>else</i> are voters going to act racially polarized, <i>other than</i> one race of voters going overwhelmingly for A while the other race goes overwhelmingly for B?&nbsp; But, Justice Alito says, if A and B are of different political parties, then it&rsquo;s not racial polarization.</p><p>Why?&nbsp; Well, first, he points out, it is also partisan polarization.&nbsp; (Ok, we&rsquo;re all with him so far.)&nbsp; Second, he asserts an odd fiction, that racial and partisan polarization are completely distinct phenomena, as though parties have nothing to do with race&mdash;and that therefore, we can define racially polarized voting by a process of subtraction.&nbsp; Whenever you have <i>partisan</i> polarization, we&rsquo;re going to define that, ipse dixit, as <i>not</i> racial polarization.&nbsp; (That sound you hear is the entire political science profession getting off the train at that point, shaking their heads in disbelief.)&nbsp; &nbsp;And so it follows, on Alito&rsquo;s view, that there may not be any racial polarization in Alabama at all: it&rsquo;s all partisan polarization. It&rsquo;s all politics.</p><p>Supreme Court justices can make up their own doctrine (and they certainly did here!); that&rsquo;s part of their job. But their creative redefinition of racially polarized voting doesn&rsquo;t change the political science any more than their law office history changes actual history.&nbsp; Racially polarized voting is a political science concept.&nbsp; It means what it sounds like.&nbsp; It means that people of one race tend to vote one way and people of another race tend to vote another way.&nbsp; The stronger that pattern, the more racially polarized the voting.&nbsp; That&rsquo;s all.&nbsp; You can have racially polarized voting with no parties, one party, two parties, many parties, it doesn&rsquo;t matter the number of parties.&nbsp; Parties reflect politically important divisions in society because that&rsquo;s their job.&nbsp; The question of racially polarized voting is about the extent to which voters of different races disagree in how they vote&mdash;not whether that disagreement happens to be so exceptionally powerful that a party system gets built around it, as it has been in Alabama.</p><p>In concept, racially polarized voting is not very complicated. There are interesting and somewhat tricky issues of data and statistical inference involved in measuring it, since we use a secret ballot and you can&rsquo;t generally directly observe the race of each voter.&nbsp; Political scientists have strategies for dealing with those data limitations and coming up with estimates of racially polarized voting.&nbsp; It turns out to be <a href="https://cces.gov.harvard.edu/sites/g/files/omnuum8901/files/Kuriwaki-et-al_racially-polarized-voting-MRP.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">empirically highly varied</a>&nbsp;from place to place in the United States.&nbsp; Political scientists&rsquo; estimates of racially polarized voting have found their way into generations of judicial opinions because judges find them useful.&nbsp; Why?&nbsp; The most important reason is that racially polarized voting helps judges decide when a racial group will need protection to avoid having its voting strength diluted in violation of American law.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p>There are always winners and losers in politics.&nbsp; No group, racial or otherwise, is guaranteed to be in the majority all the time.&nbsp; Sometimes you&rsquo;re going to be stuck in the minority.&nbsp; In normal politics, you win some, you lose some.&nbsp; If voting is not racially polarized, plenty of people of all races will be among the winners and the losers and that&rsquo;s fine.</p><p>However, Americans collectively decided that we would not allow a dominant racial majority (specifically, the Southern white elites of places like Alabama) to design voting rules and maps that meant Black people <i>persistently</i> and <i>systematically</i> lose, over and over, so that they have no representation in government, when their views are strongly at odds with the views of the white majority.&nbsp; Abstracting out from the paradigm case of Black people in states like Alabama, Americans decided to ensure through constitutional amendment and statutory enactment that <i>no racial group is durably locked out of political power</i>.&nbsp; To achieve this, we ratified the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.&nbsp; When the Supreme Court failed to enforce those Amendments, leading to most of a century of Jim Crow, we followed up with the Voting Rights Act.&nbsp; Both required considerable struggle and sacrifice.&nbsp; People died for the Voting Rights Act, and <a href="https://talkingpointsmemo.com/news/their-loved-ones-died-for-the-voting-rights-act-the-supreme-courts-ruling-is-a-new-injustice" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">many of their relatives are still around to talk about it</a>.&nbsp; The Reconstruction Amendments and later the VRA were needed because without them, the white power structure of the states in the former Confederacy such as Alabama was obviously going to come up with ways to lock Black people out of electing any of their preferred candidates to office.&nbsp; We know they would do this because <i>they did it</i>.&nbsp; And also because they are now trying to do it again.</p><p>In politics, sometimes you win, sometimes you lose.&nbsp; But <i>if</i> voting is racially polarized, such that white voters persistently vote &ldquo;as a bloc&rdquo; to stop the candidates Black voters prefer, the Fifteenth Amendment and the Voting Rights Act say you have to structure your elections in a different way, so that despite this polarization, there&rsquo;s some sharing of power with Black people.&nbsp; The white majority gets most of the seats but not all.&nbsp; This is the basis on which federal courts ordered Alabama to draw a second congressional district where Black voters might elect a candidate they actually chose.&nbsp; Alabama blatantly defied that order, and now the Supreme Court has rewarded the state for that defiance.</p><p><i>Louisiana v. Callais</i> was the final act in a bleak Roberts Court trilogy that eviscerated the Voting Rights Act.&nbsp; The trilogy began with <i><a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2012/12-96" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Shelby County v. Holder</a></i> in 2013 (nullifying Section 5 of the VRA).&nbsp; Just like the lesser-known middle episode in the trilogy, <i><a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2020/19-1257" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Brnovich v. DNC</a> </i>(2021), <i>Callais</i> was an Alito opinion that legislated an elaborate new statutory scheme for proving voting discrimination claims.&nbsp; But it&rsquo;s an odd, crabbed kind of statutory scheme, one that no Congress would have legislated in real life.&nbsp; Instead of laying out in the statute what actually counts as discrimination, Alito&rsquo;s rewritten legislative framework is entirely devoted to creating new defenses that shield jurisdictions from VRA liability&mdash;many of them written in vague enough terms to give creative judges plenty of tools for making sure VRA plaintiffs lose. One of those new defenses is the &ldquo;it was party, so it was not race&rdquo; defense that is the subject of this post.&nbsp; Section 2 of the VRA once covered discrimination in both voting procedures (&ldquo;vote denial&rdquo;) and districting (&ldquo;vote dilution&rdquo;).&nbsp; Alito rewrote the VRA&rsquo;s legal requirements for the former in Brnovich and the latter in Callais&mdash;all with the blessing, the opinion assignment, and the vote of Chief Justice John Roberts (whose opposition to the VRA was known at the time of his confirmation hearings, if Congress had <a href="https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/lewis_testimony_09_15_05.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">listened</a> to John Lewis).&nbsp; This trilogy of cases is one of the most important elements of the historic, ignominious legacy of the Roberts Court.</p><p>And yet that somehow understates it.&nbsp; The Supreme Court is going further than merely (merely!) eviscerating the Voting Rights Act.&nbsp; It is also taking a pickax to underlying constitutional protections in voting, as yesterday&rsquo;s order in <a href="https://vifa-recht.de/Allen%20v.%20Milligan" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><i>Allen v. Milligan</i></a> makes especially clear.&nbsp; Instead of engaging in statutory interpretation, the Court in <i>Callais</i> and <i>Milligan</i> is lunging straight for the conceptual underpinnings of the law of vote dilution, and in particular, racially polarized voting.&nbsp; This is not statutory interpretation or constitutional interpretation, but a radical conceptual redefinition of an important element in the underlying architecture of how we think about what vote dilution is.&nbsp; That&rsquo;s going to have a large blast radius.</p><p>* * *</p><p>So how could one test the Supreme Court&rsquo;s seriousness regarding its redefinition of racially polarized voting, where we define it by subtraction, excluding any partisan polarization?&nbsp; A really astute law student or lawyer might wonder: ok, SCOTUS, suppose we go down to Alabama and find a nonpartisan election for some office.&nbsp; What if there&rsquo;s racially polarized voting in that election?&nbsp;</p><p>(There will be. As noted above, voting in Alabama is extremely racially polarized.&nbsp; That&rsquo;s going to hold true whether you offer voters zero, one, two, or many parties.)</p><p>If you take Justice Alito at his word, you might think he would react to racially polarized voting in a nonpartisan election with an &ldquo;oh my, it turns out I was wrong, voting is racially polarized after all!&rdquo;&nbsp; Perhaps he might then take a fresh look at the extensive record that led the federal district court in Alabama to conclude that the state had intentionally and unconstitutionally diluted Black voters&rsquo; voting power.)&nbsp; Reader, please know, this is not how it&rsquo;s going to go.&nbsp; Even with no party labels, Justice Alito will say, how can you tell whether it&rsquo;s partisan polarization or racial polarization?&nbsp; There aren&rsquo;t any racial labels on the ballots either, but sometimes people know.&nbsp; At the end of the day, Alito and other Republican justices simply hold to a strong intuition that party matters more than race.&nbsp; This makes sense; after all, they believe party matters more than race <i>to them</i>.&nbsp; It just stands to reason, they will feel intuitively, that any apparent case of racial polarization is actually a case of covert partisan polarization.</p><p>In any event, you actually aren&rsquo;t going to find a whole lot of nonpartisan elections in Alabama to test SCOTUS with. That's because Alabama is one of a handful of states with partisan elections all the way down to the school board level. And why is that?&nbsp;</p><p>It&rsquo;s because of race.</p><p>If I may be permitted to get on a soapbox for a moment, the point here, loudly for those in the back, is that a state&rsquo;s political system is not some kind of a natural phenomenon like its weather or its soil, but rather, a product of politics in that state (and of course, spilling over from other states as well).&nbsp; Alabama&rsquo;s political system was built&mdash;as in other states of the former Confederacy, with various different variations&mdash;a bit more than a century ago, by white elites, to disenfranchise Black voters.&nbsp; At the time the Black voters were Republicans and the white voters were Democrats.&nbsp; Later they switched party labels.&nbsp; Either way, using party labels helps keep everyone on side.&nbsp; Reinforcing racial lines with partisan lines helps make sure Black people lose a little more consistently than they would absent the party labels, where they might have more of a shot at alliance-making across racial lines.&nbsp; Using party labels down to the school board level is one small tactic that serves that goal.</p><p>* * *</p><p>In the view of the Republican justices of SCOTUS, whenever race and party run together, any observed polarization is party, not race. This is a very convenient conclusion. It means that any time you wish to destroy the political power of a racial minority, all you have to do is define them as a different party.</p><p>When I was a law student 20 years ago, Pam Karlan taught me this point with an example I will never forget.&nbsp; Suppose you have two parties, she said.&nbsp; The Problack party and the Antiblack party.&nbsp; Suppose their platforms reflect their names.</p><p>Are we going to see racially polarized voting?&nbsp; Partisan polarization?&nbsp; Yes and yes. And it&rsquo;s going to be impossible to separate the two.&nbsp; Indeed, I would add that if these are the parties, you can work backwards and see that race must really be the central axis of politics.&nbsp; In that way, Karlan might as well have been talking about Alabama.</p><p>The Supreme Court has now more or less grabbed hold of this example and turned it upside down.&nbsp; According to Justice Alito and the other Republican justices, there is not actually any racial polarization in that example.&nbsp; It&rsquo;s all partisan polarization.&nbsp; If a state just happened to elect all its members of Congress from the Antiblack party, and Black voters were aggrieved about being locked out, they are now obligated propose an alternative less-discriminatory map that &ldquo;performs equally well&rdquo; in electing members of the Antiblack party.&nbsp;</p><p>That is actually where we are now.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p>The deeper the racial polarization, the more difficult it is to disentangle from partisan polarization, because the more closely the parties will align with the racial divide.&nbsp; That is why&mdash;ironically, tragically, inevitably, intentionally&mdash;the greatest effect of <i>Callais/Milligan</i> is going to be in the former Confederacy, more or less the set of jurisdictions once covered by Section 5 of the VRA.</p><p>Why? Because those are still, today, more or less the places where voting is the most racially polarized.&nbsp; In their 2024 APSR <a href="https://cces.gov.harvard.edu/sites/g/files/omnuum8901/files/Kuriwaki-et-al_racially-polarized-voting-MRP.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">article</a>, <i>The Geography of Racially Polarized Voting</i>, Kuriwaki, Ansolabehere, Dagonel, &amp; Yamauchi have a helpful map, which shows considerable overlap with the old Section 5 coverage map:&nbsp;</p><p></p><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAwpLRp-BERMTHxJAkfuA4wJwWPoTIRlZgjwomOEQlpO8NVM5n8Wlb6eNGvveFmuXzASWTOM36fc7lZhjQKjN71NjtIHrnF2KeMzA5lkmbjVsQPvtQHarUiC6aof_NPc6y5ORAMKkUqfus1JEYWDgk5XBIE_kqSmbrwsVzGGJnt6PedlsyjI72/s936/Polarization%20map.png" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAwpLRp-BERMTHxJAkfuA4wJwWPoTIRlZgjwomOEQlpO8NVM5n8Wlb6eNGvveFmuXzASWTOM36fc7lZhjQKjN71NjtIHrnF2KeMzA5lkmbjVsQPvtQHarUiC6aof_NPc6y5ORAMKkUqfus1JEYWDgk5XBIE_kqSmbrwsVzGGJnt6PedlsyjI72/w640-h388/Polarization%20map.png" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a></div><p><br></p>Justice Alito and the Roberts Court can make up any doctrines they like to deny the reality of racially polarized voting.&nbsp; But at the end of the day, Americans are going to observe the same thing we observed after the end of Reconstruction: that in many of the states where, even today, most Black Americans live&mdash;that is, in many of the states of the former Confederacy&mdash;there will no longer be any members of Congress that any appreciable number of Black people actually voted for.<p></p><p>The Republican majority on the Supreme Court is responsible for this.&nbsp; &nbsp; It is important for all of us to let Americans know that.&nbsp; It will be one of the foundations for an important argument to come, about the necessity of using political power in the elected branches to do two essential things: change the way we draw congressional districts across the United States, and reform the Supreme Court.</p><p><span>Cross-posted on the </span><a href="https://electionlawblog.org/?p=156586#more-156586" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Election Law Blog</a><span>.&nbsp; This post began as a </span><a href="https://bsky.app/profile/did:plc:lk7uo6am33d4qdo6q4znzxuk/post/3mne2vqqt6k2z" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">thread</a><span> on Bluesky.</span></p><p><span>*As in so many things, Alabama is saved from being the most extreme state in the nation only by the fact that there&rsquo;s always Mississippi.</span></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-04T18:18:49+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (Joseph Fishkin)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-04T18:18:49+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


	<link rel="enclosure" 
		type="image/generic" 
		length="1"
		href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAwpLRp-BERMTHxJAkfuA4wJwWPoTIRlZgjwomOEQlpO8NVM5n8Wlb6eNGvveFmuXzASWTOM36fc7lZhjQKjN71NjtIHrnF2KeMzA5lkmbjVsQPvtQHarUiC6aof_NPc6y5ORAMKkUqfus1JEYWDgk5XBIE_kqSmbrwsVzGGJnt6PedlsyjI72/s72-w640-h388-c/Polarization%20map.png"/>

</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-04:/289550</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/the-power-of-purse-ii-shifts-in-power.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Power of the Purse II:  Shifts in Power within Congress</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Over the decades,
the major institutions of our federal government have ada...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Over the decades,
the major institutions of our federal government have adapted to their assigned
roles.<span>&nbsp; </span>When those roles undergo a
dramatic change, as they are in the second Trump Administration, their internal
structures must adapt.<span>&nbsp; </span>The changes may
seem subtle, but new institutional habits can prove far more durable than most
specific policy choices.<span>&nbsp; </span>And in each
case, these internal changes are moving us toward a more belligerent and less
functional government.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>My previous <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/the-power-of-purse-i-inter-branch.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">post</a>
showed how President Trump has wrested increasing parts of the Power of the
Purse from Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span>I promised a
follow-up post considering how that transformation is rewiring each of the
three branches of the federal government and federal-state interactions.<span>&nbsp; </span>These are complex issues, and in the
interests of readability, I am dividing this discussion into four distinct
posts, beginning today with Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Congress is the
biggest loser in the current realignment.<span>&nbsp;
</span>President Trump&rsquo;s approach here differs fundamentally from those of his
predecessors.<span>&nbsp; </span>President Ronald Reagan
never had formal control over the House of Representatives, but during his
first two years in office he leveraged his immense personal popularity with
voters to dominate the House and guard against any open defiance in the
Republican-led Senate.<span>&nbsp; </span>He therefore did
not so much seize Congress&rsquo;s prerogatives as he bent Congress to his will while
preserving its structure.<span>&nbsp; </span>He wisely
looked the other way when Members of Congress quietly jettisoned his most radical
proposals while remaining true to his broad vision.<span>&nbsp; </span>Republican Senator Bob Dole&rsquo;s rebellion to
save the Food Stamp Program is perhaps the most remarkable example of this. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Republicans
controlled Congress for most of George W. Bush&rsquo;s presidency, allowing him to
achieve his policy goals within the existing structure as well.<span>&nbsp; </span>Like President Reagan, he set broad policy ends
but generally respected Congress&rsquo;s prerogative to craft the means.<span>&nbsp; </span>During his first term, President Trump
followed this model only for his 2017 tax cut legislation &ndash; which also proved
to be one of his few legislative accomplishments.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Presidents Bill
Clinton and Joe Biden tried to micro-manage Congress during their first two
years, failed on many of their most important fiscal priorities, and lost control
of Congress for the remainder of their presidencies.<span>&nbsp; </span>President Barack Obama proved far more
successful adhering to the Reagan-Bush model of broad goal-setting with
deference to Congress on the details.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Republican control
of Congress, and the relatively pliant Republican leaders of both chambers,
likely would have allowed President Trump to achieve sweeping conservative
policy successes through conventional means.<span>&nbsp;
</span>And, to be sure, his One Big Beautiful Bill Act made radical changes to a
degree that his predecessors of both parties could only dream about.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>But President
Trump has been less interested in persuading Congress to enact his program than
he has in stripping Congress of its powers.<span>&nbsp;
</span>This likely reflects in part his dislike for the cajoling and
negotiating that prior presidents accepted as a part of the job.<span>&nbsp; </span>(Perhaps he ought to read <i>The Art of the Deal</i>?)<span>&nbsp; </span>At least as important, Russell Vought, his
Director of the Office Management and Budget (OMB), brought a strong desire to
expand executive power and allied with other exponents of executive
unilateralism such as Elon Musk.<span>&nbsp; </span>In less
than a year and a half, President Trump and Director Vought have already arrogated
much of Congress&rsquo;s traditional power and driven structural transformations
within Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The biggest internal
change Congress has experienced is the marginalization of the Appropriations
Committees.<span>&nbsp; </span>This change may sound
technical, but it is profound.<span>&nbsp; </span>Historically,
the division within Congress between authorizers (those sitting on substantive committees
other than Appropriations) and appropriators has been arguably as sharp as that
between the two parties or between the House and the Senate.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>As a lobbyist, I
worked comfortably with both Democrats and Republicans, establishing numerous
trusting relationships on both sides of the aisle and in both chambers.<span>&nbsp; </span>But these relationships were all with
authorizers, Members and staff from committees such as Ways and Means, Energy
and Commerce, Finance, Agriculture, Education and Labor, and Health, Education,
Labor and Pensions.<span>&nbsp; </span>I went to the
Appropriations Committees because my work required it, but I never felt
comfortable there.<span>&nbsp; </span>I never had any
confidence that Members or staff of either party were being candid with
me.<span>&nbsp; </span>They had their own retinue of
repeat-player lobbyists.<span>&nbsp; </span>As was I most
definitely not among them I was kept at arm&rsquo;s length by Democrats as much as by
Republicans.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Appropriators
differ from their colleagues in several key ways.<span>&nbsp; </span>Because they alone have to produce at least
twelve pieces of legislation every year, and because the filibuster effectively
requires that legislation to be bipartisan, appropriators are Congress&rsquo;s most
instinctive and experienced negotiators.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Extreme Members of each party serve on the Appropriations Committees, but
they have to temper their ideologies to get anything done.<span>&nbsp; </span>In addition, because appropriators are
commonly trying to bring projects back to their states, they are quite
vulnerable to retaliation.<span>&nbsp; </span>They thus
have strong incentives not to infuriate Members of the opposing party &ndash; an impulse
that <i>can</i> infuriate Members of their own party.<span>&nbsp; </span>Thus, in an increasingly ugly political
system, appropriators&rsquo; institutional roles compel them to preserve civility,
cooperation, and a focus on making government work.<span>&nbsp; </span>Say what you will about &ldquo;the Swamp&rdquo;, but
swamps are ecosystems.<span>&nbsp; </span>We can fantasize about
how a lovely temperate forest might be, but until that appears appropriators
keep the swamp functioning and carry away toxins that could lead the whole system
to crash.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Appropriators&rsquo;
jurisdiction has eroded somewhat over the years.<span>&nbsp; </span>Converting programs from discretionary to
entitlement funding transfers most control from appropriators to
authorizers.<span>&nbsp; </span>The Affordable Care Act included
large amounts for program administration so that Republicans could not strangle
the program in its infancy if they took control of Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span>Traditionally funding the federal government&rsquo;s
operations is a central function of appropriations.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>President Trump,
however, has shredded appropriators&rsquo; powers.<span>&nbsp;
</span>In March 2025 he signed a full-year appropriations bill written by
Republican appropriators and then promptly impounded large amounts for programs
he disliked.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>President Trump also
rejected the appropriators&rsquo; designation of much of that spending as meeting
emergencies, which had the effect of erasing that funding.<span>&nbsp; </span>This was perfectly legal but deeply
humiliating for Republican appropriators as it abrogated a bipartisan deal
going back several years.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>A time-honored political
script calls for a menacing outsider to threaten a beloved local program only
to back down when the state&rsquo;s valiant appropriator rides to the rescue.<span>&nbsp; </span>Rural Republican appropriators thought they
were being given such an opportunity to prove their worth to hometown voters
when President Trump proposed rescinding the appropriations that sustain their
local public broadcasters.<span>&nbsp; </span>Under the
illusion that they still mattered, the appropriators <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/senate-rural-public-broadcasters-white-house-funding/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">denounced</a>
the cuts, expecting that the President would play his designated role in the
skit.<span>&nbsp; </span>Instead, the President stood firm
and <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/5401903-rounds-gop-trump-funding-cuts-public-media/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">humiliated</a>
the appropriators by forcing them to vote for the cuts that they had just said
would be ruinous for their states.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>President Trump&rsquo;s One
Big Beautiful Bill Act, enacted through reconciliation procedures that
eliminate the need for bipartisanship, included operating funds for federal
immigration agencies and aid for state and local governments that cooperate
with these agencies &ndash; all traditional appropriations functions.<span>&nbsp; </span>The new reconciliation bill pending in the
Senate would further displace the Appropriations Committees&rsquo; jurisdiction,
cutting them out of funding the operating costs of large, important federal
agencies for years to come.<span>&nbsp; </span>Few obvious
limits prevent this mechanism from gobbling up vast swaths of the Appropriations
Committees&rsquo; jurisdictions. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Had any Members been
foolish enough to attempt something like this under virtually any prior
Appropriations Chair, appropriators on a bipartisan, bicameral basis would have
devastated funding for activities in the offending Members&rsquo; districts.<span>&nbsp; </span>Were Administration officials implicated,
they could expect a $1 appropriation for their salaries the next year.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Today, however, Republican
appropriators have sat by meekly as the institution they have worked so hard to
lead is humbled.<span>&nbsp; </span>Senate Appropriations
Chair Susan Collins is facing a difficult re-election fight in which she dares
not offend the President lest she dampen MAGA true believers&rsquo; enthusiasm.<span>&nbsp; </span>No doubt she is concerned.<span>&nbsp; </span>And Representative Tom Cole became a
long-time member of House Republican leadership, and then House Appropriations
Chair, by demonstrating loyalty to his party not by defending any committee&rsquo;s prerogatives.<span>&nbsp; </span>Democratic appropriators remain more
committed to the institution &ndash; to the occasional irritation of their party
leadership &ndash; but one can readily imagine Democrats using budget reconciliation
to lock in funding for numerous liberal priorities next time they control the
White House and both chambers of Congress.<span>&nbsp;
</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>A country whose
electorate is split almost precisely down the middle has a dire need for
bipartisan negotiation and compromise.<span>&nbsp; </span>Negotiations
are already extremely difficult with ignorant but loud voices in each party&rsquo;s
base screaming &ldquo;betrayal&rdquo; at even the most inevitable concessions.<span>&nbsp; </span>Gutting the Appropriations Committees&rsquo; roles
will only make that worse.<span>&nbsp; </span>Reconciliation
bills can establish programs with opulent funding when one party holds a
federal trifecta (control of the House, the Senate, and the White House) only
to be destroyed &ndash; before the programs have an opportunity to show their worth &ndash;
as soon as the other party seizes control.<span>&nbsp;
</span>And all the while, the anger mounts.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Democratic governance will not be sustainable if this persists. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><i>@DavidASuper1
@DavidASuper.bsky.social</i></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-04T16:09:28+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (David Super)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-04T16:09:28+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-04:/289531</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/nach-dem-overshoot/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Nach dem Overshoot</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Die verfassungsrechtliche Beurteilung der Klimapolitik hat sich bisher an Obergrenzen der atmosph&auml;ri...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Die verfassungsrechtliche Beurteilung der Klimapolitik hat sich bisher an Obergrenzen der atmosph&auml;rischen Erw&auml;rmung orientiert. Sie wird neu herausgefordert, wenn diese Grenzen &uuml;berschritten werden. Die Frage, wie mit dieser Herausforderung umzugehen ist, stellt sich derzeit in mehreren anh&auml;ngigen Verfahren &ndash; darunter Verfassungsbeschwerden vor dem <a href="https://www.greenpeace.de/publikationen/Klimaverfassungsbeschwerde_0.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG</a>, eine Klage vor dem <a href="https://www.climatecasechart.com/document/global-legal-action-network-and-can-europe-v-commission_c114" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Europ&auml;ischen Gericht</a> und eine Klage vor dem spanischen <a href="https://www.climatecasechart.com/document/greenpeace-v-spain-ii_3197" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Obersten Gericht</a>. Dieser Beitrag macht einen Vorschlag, der in diesen Verfahren vielleicht geh&ouml;rt werden kann. Er lenkt die Aufmerksamkeit vom Kalkulieren und Zuteilen von Emissionsbudgets auf die Suche nach dem, was an Emissionsvermeidung technisch, &ouml;konomisch und sozial machbar ist.</p>
<h2>Budgets und ihre Grenzen</h2>
<p>Rechtsprechung und Literatur, die sich verfassungsrechtlich mit Klagen auf mehr Klimaschutz befassen, arbeiten meist mit CO2eq-Emissionsbudgets. Diese werden aus Grenzwerten f&uuml;r die durchschnittliche Erderw&auml;rmung abgeleitet. Sie werden zun&auml;chst global berechnet und dann nach bestimmten &ndash; sehr umstrittenen &ndash; Kriterien den einzelnen Staaten zugeordnet. Manche Gerichte, etwa das <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2021/03/rs20210324_1bvr265618.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG</a> im Klimabeschluss von 2021 (Rn. 225) oder der <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-233206" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EGMR</a> im <em>KlimaSeniorinnen</em>-Urteil von 2024 (Rn. 569), halten dabei eine gleiche Verteilung pro Kopf der Bev&ouml;lkerung f&uuml;r verfassungsrechtlich vertretbar.</p>
<p>Als Aufw&auml;rmungsgrenze haben der <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-233206" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EGMR</a> (Rnr. 569-571) und der <a href="https://icj-web.leman.un-icc.cloud/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-adv-01-00-en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IGH</a> 1,5 &deg;C, das <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2021/03/rs20210324_1bvr265618.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG</a> (Rnr. 231) 1,75 &deg;C als rechtlich geboten angesehen. Das Pariser Abkommen nennt 1,5 &deg;C zwar nur als erstrebenswerte Obergrenze. Faktisch entspricht dieser Wert jedoch ann&auml;hernd&nbsp;der 2&deg;C-Grenze, wenn das daraus abgeleitete Budget mit sehr hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit eingehalten werden soll, etwa mit den in Risikobewertungen &uuml;blichen <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistische_Signifikanz" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">95%.</a> Zudem hat <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_10_add1_adv.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 1/CMA 3 No. 22</a> des sog. Glasgow Climate Pact der Vertragsstaaten der Klimarahmenkonvention von 2021 1,5 &deg;C als Grenze anerkannt, was als &bdquo;sp&auml;tere &Uuml;bereinkunft&ldquo; im Sinne des Art. 31 Abs. 3 lit a der Wiener Vertragsrechtskonvention angesehen werden kann.</p>
<p>Im Grunde aber ist ma&szlig;geblich, dass bereits heute erhebliche Sch&auml;den eingetreten sind und Kipppunkte &uuml;berschritten wurden. Diese unbestreitbare Tatsache wird im Streit &uuml;ber den Ma&szlig;stab 1,5&deg; C verdr&auml;ngt.</p>
<h2>Was tun, wenn kein Budget mehr verf&uuml;gbar ist?</h2>
<p>Die Obergrenze von 1,5&deg; wurde im Jahre 2024 &uuml;berschritten und wird vermutlich auch im Durchschnitt der darauffolgenden Jahre <a href="https://earth.org/paris-agreements-1-5c-threshold-breach-could-come-earlier-than-expected-scientists-warn/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">erreicht</a>. Damit ist klar, dass das daf&uuml;r vorgesehene Budget verbraucht ist. Was also tun, wenn kein Budget mehr verf&uuml;gbar ist?</p>
<p>Man kann den Budgetansatz retten, wenn man &Uuml;berschreitungen der Aufw&auml;rmungsgrenze (sogenannte Overshoots) zul&auml;sst &ndash; verbunden mit dem Versprechen, das &uuml;berschie&szlig;ende CO2 sp&auml;ter wieder aus der Atmosph&auml;re zu entfernen. Dieser reale Ausgleich ist jedoch eine Spekulation auf die Zukunft. Zudem f&uuml;hren auch tempor&auml;re &Uuml;berschreitungen zu zus&auml;tzlicher Erw&auml;rmung und verursachen entsprechende Sch&auml;den.</p>
<p>Ein anderer Ausweg besteht darin, Emissionsreduktionen im Ausland zu erm&ouml;glichen und die eingesparte Menge auf die inl&auml;ndische Reduktion anzurechnen. Doch die Erfahrungen mit solchen Offsets im Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) des Kyoto-Protokolls zeigen erhebliche Probleme. H&auml;ufig fehlt es an der sogenannten Zus&auml;tzlichkeit (&bdquo;additionality&ldquo;), weil der betreffende Staat die Reduktionen ohnehin h&auml;tte erreichen k&ouml;nnen oder v&ouml;lker- und verfassungsrechtlich dazu verpflichtet war. Aus diesen und weiteren Gr&uuml;nden<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>1)</sup></a><span></span></span> hat das European Scientific Advisory Board on Climate Change (ESABCC) in seinem <a href="https://climate-advisory-board.europa.eu/reports-and-publications/scientific-advice-for-amending-the-european-climate-law-setting-climate-goals-to-strengthen-eu-strategic-priorities" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gutachten von 2025</a> von solchen Offsets abgeraten. Die EU h&auml;lt dennoch daran fest (Art. 4 Abs. 5 lit. a) VO (EU) 2021/1119 in der Fassung der <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L_202600667&amp;qid=1779034519146" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">VO (EU) 2026/1119</a>).</p>
<p>Angesichts dieser Schwierigkeit ist zu erwarten, dass Politik und Recht sich auf die Obergrenze von 2&deg; C einstellen werden und damit die Budgets einfach vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern. Doch auch diese Grenze wird in absehbarer Zeit erreicht sein &ndash; und das Spiel w&uuml;rde von vorne beginnen.</p>
<p>Es spricht daher viel daf&uuml;r, die Orientierung an zuk&uuml;nftigen Temperaturgrenzen und den ihnen entsprechenden Budgets grunds&auml;tzlich in Frage zu stellen. Die Vorstellung, die Menschheit habe ein Budget zur Verf&uuml;gung, das erst bei bestimmten Schwellen ersch&ouml;pft sei, f&uuml;hrt in die Irre: There ain&rsquo;t such thing as a free lunch &ndash; dieser &ouml;konomische Grundsatz gilt auch f&uuml;r die <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/no-such-thing-free-lunch" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&Ouml;kologie</a>. Die Sch&auml;den sind bereits eingetreten, sie treffen nur noch nicht alle gleicherma&szlig;en. Wir befinden uns in einer Notlage, in der andere Ma&szlig;st&auml;be gesucht werden m&uuml;ssen. Ein Ausweg liegt auf der Hand, n&auml;mlich schlicht das zu fordern, was zur Emissionsvermeidung tats&auml;chlich machbar ist &ndash; jetzt und in jedem kommenden Jahr.</p>
<h2>Vom Budget zur Machbarkeit</h2>
<p>Eine Verpflichtung, das Machbare zu tun, ist nach dem Gutachten des <a href="https://icj-web.leman.un-icc.cloud/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-adv-01-00-en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IGH</a> von 2025 v&ouml;lkerrechtlich abgest&uuml;tzt (Nr. 237-254, 280-292): Nach dem Pariser &Uuml;bereinkommen solle jeder Vertragsstaat den Anstieg der Temperatur nach seinen jeweiligen F&auml;higkeiten (&bdquo;respective capabilities&ldquo;) bremsen und bei Nachsch&auml;rfung der national erkl&auml;rten Beitr&auml;ge (&bdquo;national determined contributions&ldquo;) die h&ouml;chstm&ouml;gliche Zielsetzung verwirklichen (&bdquo;reflect the highest possible ambition&ldquo;). V&ouml;lkergewohnheitsrechtlich sei jeder Staat zudem verpflichtet, Sch&auml;digungen so weit wie m&ouml;glich zu vermeiden (&bdquo;due diligence&ldquo;). Auch verfassungsrechtlich ist Machbarkeit geboten. Belastungen f&uuml;r Gesundheit, Beruf und Eigentum der vom Klimawandel Betroffenen sind nur hinzunehmen, wenn alle M&ouml;glichkeiten der Emissionsreduktion ausgesch&ouml;pft sind.<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>2)</sup></a><span></span></span></p>
<p>Schaut man noch einmal genauer hin, so wird deutlich, dass bereits im Budgetansatz in Teilen auf Machbarkeit abgestellt wird. Neu ist der Gedanke also nicht. Dies gilt insbesondere f&uuml;r die gesetzgeberische Festlegung von Reduktionszielen. So wurde das neue Reduktionsziel der EU f&uuml;r 2040 auf ein <a href="https://climate-advisory-board.europa.eu/reports-and-publications/towards-eu-climate-neutrality-progress-policy-gaps-and-opportunities" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gutachten des ESABCC</a> gest&uuml;tzt, das eine Vielzahl von Szenarien auswertete und seinerseits auf Auswertungen des IPCC aufbaute. &Auml;hnlich verf&auml;hrt auch der <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/about/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Climate Action Tracker</a> (CAT), wenn er neben der fairen Budgetverteilung &bdquo;modelled domestic pathways&ldquo; entwirft. Zu nennen ist schlie&szlig;lich die noch junge <a href="https://scenariocompass.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scenario Compass Initiative</a> (SCI), die ebenfalls Szenarien sortiert und &uuml;ber ihre Datenbank zug&auml;nglich macht. Die Szenarien selbst &ndash; von ihnen gibt es Tausende &ndash; haben eine enorme Variationsbreite; auch die Sortierkriterien unterscheiden sich. Die zugrundeliegende Methodologie, ausf&uuml;hrlich dargestellt in <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Annex-III.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IPCC AR6 WG III Annex III</a>, kann hier nicht im Einzelnen gew&uuml;rdigt werden. Aus rechtlicher Perspektive besteht der Eindruck, dass das Potential rechtlicher Gestaltung eher untersch&auml;tzt wird und die Annahmen &uuml;ber Emissionsreduktionsm&ouml;glichkeiten oft hoch aggregiert und empirisch wenig ges&auml;ttigt sind.</p>
<p>Ein konkreter Ansatz w&uuml;rde demgegen&uuml;ber minuti&ouml;s f&uuml;r jeden Staat die einzelnen Emissionsquellen durchgehen, geeignete Ma&szlig;nahmen identifizieren, kontraproduktive Seiteneffekte ausschlie&szlig;en und die einzelnen Einsparpotenziale addieren. Beispiele liegen auf der Hand: Tempobegrenzungen auf Autobahnen, Ausbau des &ouml;ffentlichen Verkehrs, Ausstieg aus Verbrennermotoren und aus besonders emissionsintensiven Fahrzeugen, W&auml;rmepumpen und Geothermie in Geb&auml;uden, Bauen mit Holz statt Beton, Verringerung des Fleischkonsums, eine st&auml;rker &ouml;kologisch ausgerichtete Landwirtschaft, Begrenzung von Ferienreisen per Flugzeug, Abschaffung privater Flugzeuge und Gro&szlig;jachten, elektronische statt pr&auml;sente Konferenzen, Zubau von Wind- und Sonnenenergieanlagen, Umverteilung von Wohnraum, Durchsetzung der Kreislaufwirtschaft, etc. Die Liste lie&szlig;e sich fortsetzen.</p>
<h2>Kriterien der Machbarkeit</h2>
<p>Selbstverst&auml;ndlich meldet sich bei einer solchen Aufz&auml;hlung sofort die Verbotskritik. Ihr ist zun&auml;chst entgegenzuhalten, dass Verbote keineswegs nur hemmen, sondern &ndash; dialektisch &ndash; auch Innovationspotential freisetzen. Aber Verbote m&uuml;ssen sich selbstverst&auml;ndlich grundrechtlicher Pr&uuml;fung stellen. Emissionsreduktionen sch&uuml;tzen zwar Grundrechte der von Klimasch&auml;den Betroffenen, greifen aber zugleich in Rechte von Energienutzern ein. Wir haben es also mit einer Dreierkonstellation, einem &bdquo;<a href="https://www.jura.fu-berlin.de/forschung/europarecht/bob/berliner_online_beitraege/Paper09-Calliess/Paper09---Rechtsstaat-und-Wirtschaftsfreiheit-vor-den-Herausforderungen-des-Staatsziels-Umweltschutz-_Art_-20a-GG_-_Rule-of-Law_-Freedom-of-Market-and-Environmental-Protection_.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mehrpoligen Verfassungsrechtsverh&auml;ltnis</a>&ldquo; (C. Calliess), zu tun. Dem regelnden Staat stehen Tr&auml;ger von (&bdquo;Freiheits&ldquo;-)Rechten auf Energienutzung und Tr&auml;ger von (&bdquo;materiellen&ldquo;) Rechten auf Gesundheit und Eigentum gegen&uuml;ber.&nbsp;Diese Positionen m&uuml;ssen zum Ausgleich gebracht werden.</p>
<p>In diesem rechtlichen Spannungsfeld sind Kriterien der Machbarkeit zu suchen. Dabei ist Machbarkeit nicht von vornherein als Grenze des M&ouml;glichen zu verstehen, sondern als Aufforderung zur Erm&ouml;glichung &ndash; &auml;hnlich wie im Umweltrecht der &bdquo;Stand der Technik&ldquo; und der &bdquo;Stand von Wissenschaft und Technik&ldquo; im Vergleich zu den &bdquo;allgemein anerkannten Regeln der Technik&ldquo; Anschubcharakter haben <a href="https://beck-online.beck.de/?vpath=bibdata%2Fzeits%2FBVERFGE%2F49%2Fcont%2FBVERFGE.49.89.1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">(BVerfGE 49, 89</a>, 135-137). Drei Dimensionen solcher Kriterien bieten sich an: Machbar ist, was technisch m&ouml;glich, &ouml;konomisch erschwinglich und sozial gerecht ist. Selbstverst&auml;ndlich muss das als machbar Vorgestellte auch politisch durchsetzbar sein. Doch betrifft dies die Ebene der Umsetzung und nicht die der L&ouml;sungen selbst. Wer von vornherein nur an Akzeptanz denkt, verkennt die &Uuml;berzeugungskraft von Ideen und die Normativit&auml;t verfassungsrechtlicher Gebote.</p>
<p>Technische Machbarkeit orientiert sich nicht nur am gegenw&auml;rtigen Stand, sondern an der Innovationskraft der Technik. Sie begn&uuml;gt sich nicht mit nachgelagerten (&bdquo;end of pipe&ldquo;) L&ouml;sungen, sondern arbeitet an den Ursachen, das hei&szlig;t insbesondere an der Vermeidung von Emissionen statt an deren Abscheidung und Einlagerung (&bdquo;carbon capture and storage&ldquo;). Zur technischen Machbarkeit z&auml;hlt auch die geographische Verf&uuml;gbarkeit erneuerbarer Energiequellen wie Sonne und Wind.</p>
<p>&Ouml;konomische Machbarkeit verweist auf eine Kosten-Nutzen-Betrachtung. Oft werden nur die Investitionskosten f&uuml;r Emissionsvermeidung vorgerechnet. Dem sind der Nutzen eines stabilen Klimas und die immer gravierenderen Klimasch&auml;den gegen&uuml;berzustellen. F&uuml;r die Wahl der Instrumente setzt die &Ouml;konomie meist auf die Bepreisung von Umwelt- beziehungsweise Klimanutzung. Das ist nur akzeptabel, wenn vorher ordnungsrechtlich Grenzwerte festgelegt werden, weil die Bepreisung sonst zielblind ist. Skeptisch stimmt auch das Effizienzkriterium, nach dem derjenige Sektor investieren soll, der die Emissionen zu geringsten Preisen senken kann. Jeder Sektor muss alles ihm Machbare verwirklichen. Zum Beispiel sollten die zus&auml;tzlichen Emissionen unbegrenzter Fahrzeuggeschwindigkeit nicht mit Aufforstungen verrechnet werden; denn eine Tempobegrenzung ist als solche machbar, und desgleichen auch die Aufforstung. Die Verrechnung beider geht von einem freien Budget aus, das aber nicht mehr existiert.</p>
<p>Soziale Machbarkeit erfordert schlie&szlig;lich, dass die Kosten nicht einseitig zu Lasten der &Auml;rmeren gehen. Wenn etwa Geb&auml;ude ged&auml;mmt und mit Photovoltaik best&uuml;ckt werden sollen, sollte die Regulierung mit sozial gestaffelter F&ouml;rderung verbunden werden. Bei einer Bepreisung sollte vermieden werden, dass diejenigen, die sich den Preis nicht leisten k&ouml;nnen, benachteiligt werden. Soziale Machbarkeit impliziert aber vor allem, dass die Reicheren ihre Emissionen drastisch verringern m&uuml;ssen. Sie verursachen den relativ h&ouml;chsten Anteil. Dass sie bei einer Bepreisung f&uuml;r Emissionen zahlen, gen&uuml;gt nicht. Denn die Zahlung erm&ouml;glicht reale Emissionen, sie verhindert diese nicht.</p>
<p>Die Auswahl der machbaren Ma&szlig;nahmen steht sicherlich im gesetzgeberischen Ermessen. Dieses wird aber durch die objektiven Prinzipien des Art. 20a GG, des <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_de.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Art. 37 GRCh</a> und der <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/convention_text_with_annexes_english_for_posting.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Art. 3-5 FCCC</a> eingeengt, weil die Klimakrise das &Uuml;berleben weiter Teile der Menschheit bedroht. Zu zur&uuml;ckhaltend ist deshalb die Vorgabe des EGMR im <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-233206%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Klimaseniorinnen</em>-Urteil</a> (Rn. 543), die Staaten seien zwar verpflichtet, ein Budget festzulegen, h&auml;tten aber weites Ermessen bei der Ma&szlig;nahmenwahl. Sie folgt im Grunde dem Budgetansatz und seiner Illusion freier Aufw&auml;rmungsspannen.</p>
<h2>Notbudgets</h2>
<p>Es gibt allerdings einen Weg zur&uuml;ck vom Machbarkeits- zum Budgetansatz. Das Ergebnis ist dann aber kein frei verf&uuml;gbares, sondern ein Notbudget. Es ergibt sich aus den Emissionen, die sich zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt technisch, &ouml;konomisch oder sozial nicht vermeiden lassen. Dieses Budget muss bewirtschaftet werden. Emissionen w&auml;ren dann nur noch denjenigen zuzuweisen, die alle ihnen m&ouml;glichen Reduktionsma&szlig;nahmen umgesetzt haben und als priorit&auml;r geltende Zwecke verfolgen. Verfassungsrechtlich kommt dann vor allem das Gleichbehandlungsgebot zum<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/von-der-bewahrung-zur-bewirtschaftung-naturlicher-ressourcen/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> Zuge</a>.</p>
<h2>Schluss</h2>
<p>Was kommt nach dem Overshoot? Was ist zu tun, wenn der Schaden bereits eingetreten ist? Die Antwort dieses Beitrags lautet: Es sind keine Emissionsberechtigungen mehr zu verteilen. Verfassungsrechtlich sind Regelungen zul&auml;ssig und geboten, die von jeder Person verlangen, Emissionen zu vermeiden, wo und wann immer dies machbar ist.</p>
<div> <div><p><span role="button" tabindex="0">References</span><span role="button" tabindex="0">[<a>+</a>]</span></p></div> <div><table><caption>References</caption> <tbody> 

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>1</a></th> <td>Carbon leakage, perverse incentives, effects on carbon markets, forgone domestic investment, environmental and social impacts, und monitoring incapacity.</td></tr>

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>2</a></th> <td>Dieser Sichtweise liegt eine grundrechtliche Konstruktion zugrunde, die das EU-System der Zuteilung von Emissionsbudgets an die Mitgliedstaaten und durch diese an die Emittenten als indirekten hoheitlichen Eingriff in die Grundrechte der Drittbetroffenen ansieht. Denkt man stattdessen in der Konstruktion des BVerfG im Klimabeschluss, es bestehe eine heutige Reduktionspflicht zur Vermeidung zuk&uuml;nftiger (dann legitimer) Freiheitseingriffe, m&uuml;sste einger&auml;umt werden, dass die Zukunft mittlerweile gegenw&auml;rtig ist und kein freies Budget mehr zur Verf&uuml;gung steht. Dadurch verdichtet sich die heutige Reduktionspflicht auf alles, was machbar ist. Nimmt man (wie der EGMR) eine Schutzpflichtkonstruktion an, ist Machbarkeit ein Gebot, das das Gewicht des &ouml;ffentlichen Interesses an fossiler Energieversorgung minimiert. Siehe dazu <a href="https://www.inlibra.com/de/document/view/pdf/uuid/96914a79-d0e3-3256-bf36-fd02c2b30981?page=1&amp;toc=4133953" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Winter</a> (S. 471-473).</td></tr>

 </tbody> </table> </div></div><p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/nach-dem-overshoot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Nach dem Overshoot</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-04T09:11:46+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gerd Winter</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-04T09:11:46+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="carbon budgets"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="international court of justice"/>

	<category term="klimabeschluss"/>

	<category term="klimakrise"/>

	<category term="klimapolitik"/>

	<category term="paris agreement"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-04:/289489</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rewriting-marriage-after-trojan/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Rewriting Marriage After Trojan</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>In the span of just a few weeks in spring 2026, the post-Trojan Polish Supreme Administrative Court ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>In the span of just a few weeks in spring 2026, the post-<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/trojan/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Trojan</em></a> Polish Supreme Administrative Court delivered a series of judgments that significantly clarified the legal status of same-sex marriages concluded abroad. In its judgment of 20 March 2026 (<a href="https://orzeczenia.nsa.gov.pl/doc/CE82955F7B" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">II OSK 216/21</a>), followed by three further rulings of 7 May 2026 (<a href="https://orzeczenia.nsa.gov.pl/doc/B9563ED615" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">II OSK 1075/23</a>, II OSK 2070/23, <a href="https://orzeczenia.nsa.gov.pl/doc/DC64FC9608" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">II OSK 2073/23</a>), the Court confirmed the obligation to transcribe foreign same-sex marriage certificates into the Polish civil status register. At the same time, on 22 May 2026, Poland adopted a regulation amending the templates of civil status records, explicitly allowing entries such as husband/husband and wife/wife. This change will come into effect on 22 August 2026.</p>
<p>These developments, taken together, mark more than the implementation of the CJEU&rsquo;s judgment in <em>Trojan</em>. They indicate a broader shift in the logic of recognition: from a model strictly tied to free movement towards a more autonomous, status-based approach. While the CJEU in <em>Trojan </em>articulated a minimum standard required under EU law, Polish courts appear to have moved beyond that baseline by expanding the rationale for recognition, grounding it in constitutional and human rights reasoning rather than in free movement considerations.</p>
<p>Post-<em>Trojan</em>, national courts have not simply applied the CJEU&rsquo;s case law on same-sex marriage recognition. While formally operating within the EU framework, they have developed its implications further, gradually moving from a mobility-based logic toward a more status-oriented model of recognition grounded in constitutional and ECHR considerations.</p>
<h2>From <em>Coman</em> to <em>Trojan</em>: The Limits of Free Movement</h2>
<p>The trajectory of EU law on same-sex marriage recognition has long been defined by a cautious logic: recognition is derivative, functional, and tied to free movement. In <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/is-the-reasoning-in-coman-as-good-as-the-result/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Coman</em></a> (C&#8209;673/16), the Court established that the term &ldquo;spouse&rdquo; in Directive 2004/38 includes same-sex spouses, but only for the purposes of residence rights. The ruling deliberately stopped short of requiring full recognition of marital status.</p>
<p>This logic was preserved, albeit significantly stretched, in <em>Trojan</em> (C&#8209;713/23). The CJEU held that Member States must recognise same-sex marriages concluded in other Member States when necessary to ensure the effective exercise of EU free movement rights, read in the light of Articles 7 and 21 of the EU Charter (<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/ammo-in-the-rainbow-fight/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">family life and non-discrimination</a>).</p>
<p>Yet even as the Court emphasised the right to &ldquo;lead a normal family life&rdquo; within the Union, it remained formally anchored in mobility. The core trigger remained the cross-border element: the couple must have exercised free movement and &ldquo;created or strengthened a family life&rdquo; abroad. Thus, <em>Trojan</em> reflects a constitutional compromise: recognition as a corollary of movement, not as an autonomous status right.</p>
<h2>The Polish Turn: From Implementation to Expansion</h2>
<p>The decisive doctrinal development did not occur in Luxembourg, but in Warsaw.</p>
<p>In its judgment of 20 March 2026 (<a href="https://orzeczenia.nsa.gov.pl/doc/CE82955F7B" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">II OSK 216/21</a>), the Polish Supreme Administrative Court implemented <em>Trojan</em> by ordering the transcription of a same-sex marriage concluded abroad and explicitly recognising the primacy of EU law in this field.</p>
<p>At first sight, the judgment appears as a faithful application of EU law: refusal to transcribe a marriage certificate constitutes an unjustified restriction of free movement and family life.</p>
<p>However, a closer reading reveals a more far-reaching move. The Supreme Administrative Court rejected the argument that Article 18 of the Polish Constitution (defining marriage as a union of a man and a woman) constitutes an absolute barrier to transcription. Moreover, it reframed an obligation to transcribe not merely as a technical EU requirement but as compatible with the domestic constitutional order, and crucially treated recognition as a necessary condition for ensuring the continuity of legal status.</p>
<p>The Supreme Administrative Court explicitly said:</p>
<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Article 18 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland provides that marriage, understood as a union between a man and a woman, as well as the family, motherhood, and parenthood, shall be placed under the protection and care of the Republic of Poland. This provision cannot be interpreted as establishing an absolute obstacle to the recognition of a same-sex marriage concluded in another Member State of the European Union in accordance with the law of that State, including the transcription of such a marriage certificate into the Polish civil status register. Article 18 of the Constitution, by assigning a particular position within the legal system to marriage understood as a union between a man and a woman, is intended to emphasise that this specific institution of marriage enjoys special protection (care and safeguarding) by the Republic of Poland, similarly to the family, motherhood, and parenthood. However, this provision cannot be construed as implying, first, a prohibition on the recognition of other types of relationships between two persons regardless of their sex, nor, second, that such relationships are not entitled to any level of protection and care&rdquo;.</p></blockquote>
<p>While presented as implementation, the judgment effectively redefines the relationship between constitutional constraints and recognition obligations. Recognition and domestic marriage law are no longer seen as mutually exclusive but as capable of coexistence within a single legal order.</p>
<h2>Selective Reception: The Marginalisation of &ldquo;Family Life Abroad&rdquo;</h2>
<p>Paradoxically, while expanding the scope of recognition, the further judgments of 7 May 2026 appear to downplay a key element of the CJEU&rsquo;s reasoning: the requirement that family life be &ldquo;created or strengthened&rdquo; in another Member State.</p>
<p>In the CJEU&rsquo;s framework, this requirement functions as an obvious jurisdictional gatekeeper. Recognition is triggered not by the existence of a marriage as such, but by the exercise of free movement.</p>
<p>Yet Polish jurisprudence increasingly marginalises this condition. The Polish judgments do not meaningfully examine whether the couples established a genuine life abroad or resided there for a significant period. Although the factual circumstances remain only partially clear, the reasoning suggests that the nature and duration of residence abroad are no longer decisive.</p>
<p>This ambiguity is significant. It indicates that recognition may extend beyond situations of genuine free movement to cases that could be described as &ldquo;marriage tourism&rdquo;, where couples travel abroad specifically to conclude a marriage and subsequently return to Poland.</p>
<p>In fact, the cases decided by the Supreme Administrative Court concerned what have been described in public debate as &ldquo;weekend marriages&rdquo; &ndash; a term used by the Polish Minister of Justice. The couples in question were Polish nationals being residents in Poland and did not relocate abroad; instead, they travelled to Germany and to Madeira (Portugal) specifically for the purpose of concluding a marriage, before returning to Poland.</p>
<p>From the Court&rsquo;s perspective, however, the question of whether the couples had established or pursued family life abroad did not appear to be determinative. Notably, in one of the judgments delivered jointly in three separate cases, judge Zbigniew Kostka did not rely on <em>Trojan</em> &ndash; as had been the case in earlier administrative court decisions &ndash; but instead grounded the reasoning in the case law of the ECHR. This reflects a further shift in emphasis, aligning the Court&rsquo;s approach with the Strasbourg line of jurisprudence, which already in <a href="https://strasbourgobservers.com/2024/01/16/przybyszewska-and-others-v-poland-a-milestone-for-poland-while-a-tiny-brick-for-other-countries/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2023</a> found that the absence of any legal framework for same-sex couples in Poland violates Article 8 ECHR.</p>
<h2>Recognition Without Residence? The Emergence of &ldquo;Marriage Tourism&rdquo; Cases</h2>
<p>Once recognition is accepted for couples who exercised free movement and lived in another Member State, it becomes increasingly difficult to justify denying recognition to couples who travelled abroad solely to conclude a marriage while otherwise remaining resident in Poland.</p>
<p>In such cases, the cross-border element is formally present, but the CJEU&rsquo;s emphasis on &ldquo;creating or strengthening family life abroad&rdquo; becomes less central. Marriage itself can be understood as an act that creates family life, regardless of the duration of residence abroad.</p>
<p>In this context, the legal problem gradually shifts. It is no longer confined to EU free movement law but begins to raise questions of equality and non-discrimination under domestic constitutional law. If recognition is granted in one category of cases, denying it in another may lead to unequal treatment that is increasingly difficult to justify.</p>
<h2>The ECHR Turn: Reframing Recognition Beyond EU Law</h2>
<p>Another striking feature of post-<em>Trojan</em> Polish jurisprudence is its increasing reliance on the ECHR.</p>
<p>While the CJEU refers to the right to family life under Article 7 of the EU Charter, its reasoning remains tied to cross-border movement. By contrast, the Strasbourg framework imposes a structural obligation to ensure legal recognition, irrespective of mobility.</p>
<p>Polish courts explicitly draw on ECtHR case law (such as <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-229391%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Przybyszewska a.o. v Poland</em></a>&nbsp;,&nbsp;<a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-235976%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Formela a.o. v Poland</em></a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-242788%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Andersen v Poland</em></a>), which found that the absence of any legal framework for same-sex couples violates Article 8 ECHR. This shift detaches recognition from EU citizenship and reorients it toward fundamental rights protection.</p>
<p>The result is a hybrid model: EU law provides the trigger, but ECtHR reasoning drives the expansion. Recognition is no longer merely instrumental but increasingly grounded in the protection of personal status and family life.</p>
<h2>From Functional Recognition to Status Continuity</h2>
<p>Taken together, these developments point toward a broader conceptual shift: the emergence of a principle of status continuity.</p>
<p>Under the classical EU approach, recognition is instrumental &ndash; it facilitates mobility. Under the emerging national approach, recognition is intrinsic &ndash; it protects the integrity of personal status across borders. The CJEU in <em>Trojan</em> already hinted at this shift by emphasising the &ldquo;serious inconvenience&rdquo; caused by non-recognition. Polish courts develop this insight further: the central problem is not only barriers to movement, but the fragmentation of legal identity. Recognition thus becomes a matter of legal certainty, equality before the law, and coherence of personal status.</p>
<h2>Conclusion: A New Phase of Euromarital Constitutionalism</h2>
<p>Post-<em>Trojan</em> developments signal a transition from mobility-based recognition to status-based recognition. Polish courts are not only implementing EU law &ndash; they are actively shaping its practical and conceptual reach.</p>
<p>By downplaying the cross-border element, integrating ECtHR reasoning, and emphasising the continuity of personal status, they contribute to a broader transformation: from integration through movement toward integration through rights. In this emerging landscape, recognition is no longer merely a by-product of mobility but an increasingly autonomous claim of legal status &ndash; one that national courts and public authorities are progressively willing to uphold, even beyond the minimum required by EU law.</p>
<h2>Post Scriptum</h2>
<p>What began as a functional requirement of EU law has thus evolved into a broader legal reality &ndash; one in which the continuity of personal status prevails over formal barriers, and where judicial dialogue is gradually translated into systemic change.</p>
<p>This development is further reinforced at the domestic level: following the line adopted by the Supreme Administrative Court, regional administrative Courts, acting as courts of first instance, have likewise ordered the transcription of foreign marriage certificates, thereby confirming the emergence of a consolidated line of case law.</p>
<p>Yet, this is not the end of the process. With the gradual incorporation of these developments into the Polish legal order, a new phase is emerging in which their implications are being tested in the fields of private law and tax law. In theory, transcription remains merely a literal reproduction of a foreign marriage certificate within the Polish civil status registry. However, the practical implications of such registration remain uncertain and raise fundamental questions: whether couples whose marriages have been transcribed will be able to derive further legal effects under Polish law, such as access to social security benefits, the possibility of submitting joint income tax returns, or the right to obtain medical information about their partner. The initial response should be: possibly. But for Polish legal practitioners, this marks the beginning of a new stage &ndash; one of litigation and strategic testing of the system.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rewriting-marriage-after-trojan/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Rewriting Marriage After Trojan</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-04T07:48:36+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Mateusz Wąsik</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-04T07:48:36+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="case c‑713/23"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu"/>

	<category term="marriage"/>

	<category term="polen"/>

	<category term="recognition"/>

	<category term="same sex marriage"/>

	<category term="trojan"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-03:/289466</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/eu-inc-and-the-myth-of-the-perfect-legal-basis/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">EU Inc. and the Myth of the Perfect Legal Basis</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The debate surrounding the proposed EU Inc. Regulation has rapidly become one of the most vibrant di...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The debate surrounding the proposed <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/topics/business-and-industry/doing-business-eu/company-law-and-corporate-governance/eu-inc-new-harmonised-corporate-legal-regime_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EU Inc. Regulation</a> has rapidly become one of the most vibrant discussions in European corporate law. Much of the attention has focused on the substance of the proposal: digital incorporation, simplified governance, employee stock options, modern financing instruments, and the broader ambition of creating a genuinely European corporate vehicle for innovative firms.</p>
<p>Recently, however, attention has shifted to a different question. In a <a href="https://blogs.law.ox.ac.uk/oblb/blog-post/2026/06/eu-inc-constitutional-paradox-heart-article-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">thoughtful contribution</a>, members of the European Company Law Experts (ECLE) group argue that the proposal rests on shaky constitutional foundations. <a href="https://www.europeanlawblog.eu/pub/s65d2lnm/release/2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Other commentators</a> have made a similar point. Their concern is not primarily with the policy merits of EU Inc. but with its legal basis, particularly the Commission&rsquo;s reliance on Article 114 TFEU. According to the authors, the proposal walks a narrow constitutional ridge between Article 50 TFEU, which concerns the coordination of company law, and Article 352 TFEU, the traditional basis for supranational corporate forms such as the SE and SCE.</p>
<p>These concerns deserve serious consideration. Yet they also risk obscuring a more fundamental reality: the success or failure of EU Inc. will ultimately depend far less on the precise legal basis than on whether there is sufficient political determination to create it. The history of European integration suggests that constitutional questions matter greatly &ndash; but rarely in a way legal scholars imagine. When political consensus exists, institutional and legal solutions usually follow. When political consensus is absent, even the most perfect legal basis proves insufficient.</p>
<p>The constitutional debate therefore risks putting the cart before the horse.</p>
<h2>Political Will Has Always Driven European Integration</h2>
<p>European lawyers often speak as though Treaty provisions mechanically determine the trajectory of integration. The historical record suggests the opposite. Many of the European Union&rsquo;s most consequential innovations emerged in situations where legal authority was contested, uncertain, or even apparently absent.</p>
<p>The Economic and Monetary Union provides perhaps the clearest example. The introduction of the Euro represented one of the most ambitious transfers of sovereignty in modern history. Throughout the Maastricht negotiations, scholars debated whether monetary union was economically sustainable, constitutionally coherent, or institutionally complete. Yet, political leaders concluded that monetary integration was necessary for the future of European integration and proceeded despite unresolved constitutional and economic concerns.</p>
<p>The same pattern emerged during the eurozone crisis. Faced with existential threats to the single currency, EU institutions repeatedly adopted innovative legal arrangements whose compatibility with existing Treaty structures was hotly contested. The European Stability Mechanism, the Fiscal Compact, and the ECB&rsquo;s unconventional interventions all generated intense constitutional debate. Yet the overriding political objective &ndash; preserving the euro &ndash; ensured that legal solutions were found. In the face of a financial crisis, regulators and supervisors have always put economic necessities over formal legal problems. As <em>The Economist</em> put it in 2016, &ldquo;Given a choice between financial stability and the rule book, ditch the rule book&rdquo;.</p>
<p>The Court of Justice has played its part. In cases such as <em>Pringle</em>, <em>Gauweiler</em>, and <em>Weiss</em>, the Court demonstrated considerable sensitivity to the broader political and systemic stakes involved. It did not abandon legal reasoning. But neither did it approach the Treaties as a rigid framework incapable of accommodating new political realities. It frequently barked, but never bit &ndash; setting limits, but ultimately providing lawmakers with the necessary flexibility of pursuing even unusual and innovative legal projects.</p>
<p>The lesson is not that law does not matter. Rather, it is that constitutional interpretation in the EU has always occurred within a broader political context. Major integration projects succeed when they are perceived as necessary for the functioning of the Union.</p>
<p>EU Inc. increasingly belongs in that category.</p>
<h2>The Strategic Context Has Changed</h2>
<p>Much of the constitutional discussion treats EU Inc. as a relatively normal company-law initiative. That characterization may have been plausible several years ago. It is increasingly implausible today.</p>
<p>The proposal arrives at a moment when European policymakers are deeply concerned about the continent&rsquo;s declining competitiveness, chronic under-scaling of innovative firms, fragmented capital markets, and dependence on non-European technology ecosystems.</p>
<p>The 2024 reports produced by <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/topics/competitiveness/draghi-report_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mario Draghi</a> and <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/news/enrico-lettas-report-future-single-market-2024-04-10_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Enrico Letta</a> have fundamentally altered the policy landscape. Both reports identify regulatory fragmentation as a major obstacle to European competitiveness. Both call for more ambitious integration measures capable of allowing innovative firms to grow within Europe rather than relocating abroad.</p>
<p>Against that background, EU Inc. is not simply another optional company form. It has become part of a much larger project: preserving Europe&rsquo;s capacity to compete in an increasingly geopolitical global economy.</p>
<p>This broader context matters because constitutional questions are rarely assessed in isolation. Courts, legislators, and governments do not evaluate legal instruments in a vacuum. They evaluate them against the practical problems those instruments seek to solve.</p>
<p>If European policymakers become convinced that a genuinely European start-up vehicle is essential to strengthening innovation, venture capital markets, and technological sovereignty, it is difficult to imagine the project being abandoned solely because legal scholars disagree about the optimal Treaty provision.</p>
<h2>Article 114 Is Probably Good Enough</h2>
<p>Even on its own terms, the legal-basis debate may be less dramatic than some commentators suggest.</p>
<p>It is true the Court&rsquo;s <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:62003CJ0436" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">decision concerning the SCE Regulation</a> casts a shadow over the proposal. Yet constitutional precedents operate within specific factual and regulatory contexts. The European Union of 2026 is not the European Union of 2006.</p>
<p>Over the last two decades, the Court&rsquo;s interpretation of Article 114 TFEU has become remarkably expansive. The jurisprudence on internal-market harmonization has consistently emphasised practical effects, market integration, and the prevention of regulatory fragmentation. The Court has repeatedly accepted broad understandings of what constitutes an internal-market measure. And EU Inc. can plausibly be viewed through precisely that lens.</p>
<p>Its purpose is not merely to create a symbolic European corporate form. It seeks to reduce barriers arising from divergent national incorporation procedures, financing rules, governance structures, and legal infrastructures. Whether one labels that process &ldquo;approximation&rdquo; or &ldquo;creation&rdquo; may be less significant than it initially appears. In functional terms, the proposal addresses obstacles generated by the coexistence of twenty-seven different corporate-law regimes.</p>
<p>The Court has often favoured substance over formal categorisation in internal-market cases. It would therefore be surprising if the constitutional fate of a major competitiveness initiative turned entirely on whether EU Inc. is characterised as an optional company form or as a harmonisation measure.</p>
<p>Moreover, even if aspects of the proposal require adjustment, that does not imply that the project itself is constitutionally doomed. Legislative compromises are routine. Individual provisions may be revised. Certain matters may be relocated to parallel instruments. The legal architecture can evolve without abandoning the underlying objective.</p>
<h2>The Real Constraint Is Political, Not Constitutional</h2>
<p>Perhaps the most important weakness in the legal-basis critique is that it assumes constitutional law is the primary constraint on European action. In reality, the primary constraint is almost always political agreement.</p>
<p>The history of the Single Market offers countless examples. The question is rarely whether lawyers can identify a plausible legal basis. The question is whether Member States can agree on the substance of the proposal.</p>
<p>If 27 governments support EU Inc., the Commission supports it, the European Parliament supports it, and Europe&rsquo;s innovation ecosystem supports it, the probability that the project ultimately collapses because of a disagreement over TFEU Articles 50, 114, or 352 appears relatively small. Conversely, if political support disappears, the most perfect legal basis will not save the initiative.</p>
<p>This is why the constitutional discussion risks misidentifying the central challenge. The decisive question is not whether Article 114 represents the theoretically optimal legal basis. The decisive question is whether European governments believe that Europe needs a common corporate vehicle capable of competing with Delaware, Singapore, and other globally attractive jurisdictions. That is ultimately a political judgment.</p>
<h2>The Cost of Failure Has Increased</h2>
<p>Another reason why the constitutional debate may be overstated is that the cost of failure has changed dramatically.</p>
<p>The EU has long struggled to create legal frameworks capable of supporting high-growth firms. European entrepreneurs continue to face fragmented legal systems, fragmented capital markets, and fragmented regulatory environments. Many of the continent&rsquo;s most successful firms either relocate abroad, seek foreign capital, or structure themselves through non-European legal vehicles.</p>
<p>For decades, these shortcomings were viewed as unfortunate but manageable. Today they increasingly appear strategic.</p>
<p>The global competition for innovative firms, talent, investment, and technological leadership has intensified. European policymakers increasingly frame economic competitiveness as a matter of security and geopolitical resilience. The language of &ldquo;strategic autonomy&rdquo; and &ldquo;technological sovereignty&rdquo; reflects precisely this shift. Within that context, EU Inc. is no longer merely a company law project. It is becoming an instrument of industrial policy, capital-markets integration, and geopolitical strategy.</p>
<p>Projects that occupy such a position tend to acquire remarkable political momentum. Once policymakers conclude that an initiative is strategically necessary, institutional energy typically shifts toward making it work rather than identifying reasons why it cannot.</p>
<h2>Constitutional Perfection Should Not Become the Enemy of Reform</h2>
<p>None of this implies that constitutional questions should be ignored. They should not.</p>
<p>The ECLE contribution performs a valuable service by highlighting genuine legal uncertainties. Clarification of Article 4 may certainly be desirable. Certain provisions may indeed require refinement. The relationship between Union law, articles of association, and national law deserves careful attention.</p>
<p>But constitutional analysis should remain proportionate to the practical stakes involved. There is a danger that European company lawyers view EU Inc. through the lens of past debates over the SE, SCE, and other supranational forms. Those projects emerged in a different era, pursued different objectives, and occupied a different position within the broader integration agenda.</p>
<p>EU Inc. belongs to a new generation of European initiatives. Its primary purpose is not symbolic Europeanisation. It is functional competitiveness.</p>
<p>That distinction matters. The question facing policymakers is ultimately straightforward: does Europe need a genuinely European corporate vehicle for innovative firms? If the answer is yes, the legal system possesses ample resources to accommodate that objective. The Treaties are not a suicide pact. Nor are they designed to prevent the Union from responding to pressing economic challenges.</p>
<p>The history of European integration offers a consistent lesson. Constitutional objections rarely defeat projects that enjoy strong political support and respond to widely recognized structural problems. More often, they shape the form those projects ultimately take.</p>
<p>EU Inc. is likely to follow the same path. The decisive battle therefore concerns political ambition, not constitutional theory. If Europe truly wants an EU Inc., it will almost certainly find a way to create one. Where there is a will, there is a way.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/eu-inc-and-the-myth-of-the-perfect-legal-basis/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">EU Inc. and the Myth of the Perfect Legal Basis</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-03T15:32:39+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Wolf-Georg Ringe</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-03T15:32:39+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="article 114 tfeu"/>

	<category term="article 352 tfeu"/>

	<category term="article 50 tfeu"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu"/>

	<category term="eu inc."/>

	<category term="european corporate law"/>

	<category term="legal basis"/>

	<category term="strategic competitiveness"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-03:/289446</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/normalising-lawlessness-via-membership/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Normalising Lawlessness via Membership</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The European Law Institute (ELI) has recently welcomed Poland&rsquo;s (compromised) Supreme Court and Supr...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The <a href="https://www.europeanlawinstitute.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Law Institute</a> (ELI) has recently <a href="https://www.europeanlawinstitute.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/p_eli/Documents/CD_2026/CD_2026-3_on_Application_of_Courts.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">welcomed</a> Poland&rsquo;s (compromised) Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court as its latest institutional members, less than two years after adopting a set of <a href="https://www.europeanlawinstitute.eu/projects-instruments/instruments/eli-mount-scopus-european-standards-of-judicial-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">standards on judicial independence</a> and urging &ldquo;<a href="https://www.europeanlawinstitute.eu/news-events/upcoming-events/events-sync/news/eli-launches-european-standards-on-judicial-independence-to-safeguard-democracy-and-the-rule-of-law/?no_cache=1&amp;cHash=644c158dfab17f4e363437e9c581866d" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European governments and institutions to align their systems with these Standards</a>&rdquo;. Beyond this professional network, two judicial networks known as the <a href="https://cecc-general.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Conference of European Constitutional Courts</a> (CECC) and the <a href="https://www.network-presidents.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the EU</a> (NPSJC) have similarly failed &ndash; through inaction &ndash; to take account of CJEU and ECtHR rulings as regards their Polish members.</p>
<p>This post will look at the negative spillover effects created by these networks&rsquo; membership (in)action and the different justifications they offered to rationalise their (in)action. It will further query whether their failure to play their part in preserving the EU&rsquo;s rule of law ecosystem by removing or keeping at bay those directly engaged in the systemic undermining of judicial independence should not lead to practical consequences. In the case of the CECC and NPSJC, their status as <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/document/72742fd9-3ce0-4d23-9086-58f885f84cdd_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">privileged stakeholders</a> for the purposes of the EU&rsquo;s annual rule of law report may be questioned. In the case of the ELI, its eligibility for EU funding may be jeopardised.</p>
<h2>Poland&rsquo;s Captured &ldquo;Courts&rdquo; and Irregularly Appointed &ldquo;Judges&rdquo;: State of Play</h2>
<p>To date, Poland&rsquo;s &ldquo;Constitutional Tribunal&rdquo; continues to be a full member of the CECC notwithstanding the CJEU <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/commission-v-poland/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">judgment of 18 December 2025</a>. In this ruling, the CJEU found this body to no longer satisfy the requirements of an independent tribunal previously established by law as a result of serious irregularities in the procedures for the appointment of three of its members and its President in December 2015 and 2016 respectively. Prior to this CJEU ruling, the ECtHR had <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-229424%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">repeatedly held</a>, starting with <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/what-should-and-what-will-happen-after-xero-flor/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">a judgment of 7 May 2021</a>, that the mere presence of any of the irregularly appointed &ldquo;judges&rdquo; is &ldquo;by itself capable of vitiating the legal force&rdquo; to be attached to any &ldquo;judgment&rdquo; issued by the Constitutional Tribunal.</p>
<p>With respect to Poland&rsquo;s Supreme Court (SC), multiple CJEU and ECtHR judgments have established multiple violations of EU and ECHR rule of law requirements over many years during the period of 2015-2023. Without being exhaustive, both the CJEU and ECtHR have found the two new chambers created during Poland&rsquo;s rule of law crisis (the Extraordinary Review and Public Affairs Chamber and the Disciplinary Chamber) not to be lawful courts. The ECtHR has simultaneously <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-229366%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">held</a> that <em>every</em> person appointed to Poland&rsquo;s SC post-2018 cannot lawfully adjudicate. In the words of the ECtHR,</p>
<blockquote><p>all the judges appointed to two entire chambers of the Supreme Court &ndash; the Disciplinary Chamber and the CERPA, as well as judges appointed to the Civil Chamber on the reformed NCJ&rsquo;s recommendation &ndash; do not meet the requirements of an &ldquo;independent and tribunal established by law&rdquo; [&hellip;] By implication, the same applies to other Supreme Court judges so appointed. This situation raises grave concerns as to the continued functioning of the Supreme Court [&hellip;] as a court which is &ldquo;lawful&rdquo; under the Convention.</p></blockquote>
<p>In the case of the former &ldquo;President&rdquo; of Poland&rsquo;s SC, whose term came to an end in May 2026, the ECtHR found this person in <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-207116%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">February 2022</a> to have been appointed in manifest breach of domestic law. Following two CJEU judgments in <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:62023CJ0326" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2024</a> and <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/captured-court-awt/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">2025</a>, the former and recently appointed <a href="https://notesfrompoland.com/2026/05/26/president-appoints-new-chief-justice-of-polish-supreme-court/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">new SC president</a> &ndash; also an illegal judge &ndash; cannot lawfully adjudicate cases as a matter of EU law as well. More generally speaking, the mere presence of a single &ldquo;neo-judge&rdquo; is enough to deprive any adjudicating formation of its status as a lawful court, on account of the fundamental irregularities which characterise their defective appointments.</p>
<p>Finally, as regards Poland&rsquo;s Supreme Administrative Court (SAC), a number of pending applications have been communicated by the ECtHR starting in 2022 in relation to the neo-judges defectively appointed to it (see e.g. <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-226246%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">application no. 29320/22</a>). While there is no judgment on the merits yet, the Strasbourg Court&rsquo;s approach in respect of Poland&rsquo;s SC is applicable to the neo-judges sitting on SAC benches. In short, their appointment suffers from the same systemic problem repeatedly identified by the ECtHR, i.e., the defective procedure for judicial appointments involving Poland&rsquo;s National Council of the Judiciary (NCJ) as established in 2017. Notwithstanding the absence of any CJEU judgment directly addressing the presence of &ldquo;neo-judges&rdquo; on the SAC, its <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/polands-illegal-judges/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ruling of 24 March 2026</a> also makes clear that they belong to the group of 3,000 &ldquo;persons irregularly appointed to judicial posts&rdquo; in Poland.</p>
<h2>European Judicial and Professional Networks&rsquo; (In)Action</h2>
<p>Notwithstanding the above, the dominant reaction has been to ignore the problem or hide behind arguably spurious justifications regardless of the networks&rsquo; professed commitment to the rule of law.</p>
<p><em>The Conference of European Constitutional Courts </em></p>
<p>To begin with the CECC, its <a href="https://cecc-general.org/statute-and-regulations/statute/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">statute</a> provides that it &ldquo;shall take steps to enhance the independence of constitutional courts as an essential factor in guaranteeing and implementing [&hellip;] the rule of law&rdquo;. In addition, the status of a full member is subject, inter alia, to judicial activities being conducted &ldquo;in accordance with the principle of judicial independence&rdquo;.</p>
<p>In response to a query from the present authors regarding how the CECC intends to comply with relevant ECtHR judgments and most recently, the CJEU <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/commission-v-poland/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">judgment of 18 December 2025</a>, we were merely told &ldquo;that issues relating to membership are within the competence of the responsible bodies provided by the Statute, namely the Congress of the CECC and, where applicable, the Circle of Presidents&rdquo;.</p>
<p>The CECC&rsquo;s inaction may be contrasted with the prompt suspension of Poland&rsquo;s NCJ by the <a href="https://www.encj.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Network of Councils for the Judiciary</a> (ENCJ) in September 2018. This was done within a few months following the entry into force of the law re-establishing a wholly captured NCJ. Prior to this, the ENCJ had <a href="https://www.encj.eu/images/stories/pdf/Members/krs_pl_opinion_encj_eb_5_dec_2017.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">publicly and repeatedly</a> voiced its grave concerns about the relevant Polish draft law.</p>
<p><em>The Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the EU (NPSJC)</em></p>
<p>Similarly, the response of the Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the EU (NPSJC) to Poland&rsquo;s rule of law crisis was initially strong. For instance, the Network published in 2017 a <a href="http://network-presidents.eu/sites/default/files/StatementPoland.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">statement</a> denouncing &ldquo;a threat to the independence of the Supreme Court&rdquo;. In 2019, the NPSJC President co-authored a <a href="https://www.encj.eu/node/535" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">letter</a> to Ms. von der Leyen which decried how &ldquo;the separation of powers between the executive branch and the judicial branch&rdquo; was &ldquo;being dismantled&rdquo; in several EU countries. Following the capture of Poland&rsquo;s Supreme Court, however, the NPSJC has failed to take any action regarding its member concerned by the ECtHR&rsquo;s <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/when-is-a-court-still-a-court-and-what-makes-a-judge-a-judge/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">judgment of 3 February 2022</a>. In this judgment, the ECtHR established that the NPSJC Polish member was appointed in a defective procedure characterised by <em>manifest irregularities</em> in breach of domestic law.</p>
<p>In reply to our <a href="https://thegoodlobby.eu/an-illegal-judge-in-europes-top-judicial-network/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">memorandum</a> outlining how NPSJC was disregarding CJEU and ECtHR rulings, the NPSJC informed us on 5 May 2026 that in the absence of an internal suspension procedure, &ldquo;the Board has decided to put a proposal before the General Assembly of the Network in June to consider these matters further and, if agreed, to make amendments to the Articles of Association&nbsp;of the Network&rdquo;. In other words, the lack of allegedly adequate internal rules is used to justify further delay action regarding their Polish member (or their <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/but-first-implementation/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Hungarian member</a>) &ndash; an excuse reminiscent of the <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/immunising-the-venice-commission-against-autocratic-contamination/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Venice Commission&rsquo;s rationale</a>. The problem, however, is not going to go away as yet another illegal judge &ndash; elected only with the votes of other irregularly appointed &ldquo;judges&rdquo; &ndash; has just been <a href="https://oko.press/prezydent-postawil-sie-kaczynskiemu-na-i-prezesa-sn-powolal-neo-sedziego-kapinskiego" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">appointed the new First President</a> of Poland&rsquo;s Supreme &ldquo;Court&rdquo;.</p>
<p><em>The European Law Institute (ELI)</em></p>
<p>By contrast to the previous two judicial networks, the ELI consciously decided to welcome Poland&rsquo;s SC and SAC as institutional members. In other words, a network dedicated to <em>European Law</em> has welcomed two courts being compromised by individuals who cannot lawfully adjudicate as a matter of <em>European Law</em>, most of whom are due to be <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/opinion-1238" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">removed</a>.</p>
<p>This decision was <a href="https://europeanlawinstitute.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/p_eli/Documents/Minutes/Minutes_of_the_Council_Meeting_of_16-17_March_2026.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">justified</a> on two main grounds: (i) &ldquo;the decision concerned the institutions as such, rather than their current composition or individual officeholders&rdquo;; (ii) &ldquo;these courts remained recognised within the European legal framework and had not been excluded from comparable international networks&rdquo;. The first ground not only ignores the reality of court capture; it hollows out the concept of court and disregards European case law regarding the requirements national courts must comply with in terms of composition and individual judicial appointments. The second ground embodies an abdication of leadership &ndash; one that results in an organisation with sufficient expertise to adopt and promote standards on judicial independence but unwilling to apply them just because others have failed to do so.</p>
<p>This development was all the more surprising as it happened at a time when a <a href="https://europeanlawinstitute.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/p_eli/News_page/2026/Participants_ELI_Forum_on_the_Resilience_of_Legal_Systems_and_the_Rule_of_Law_.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forum on the Resilience of Legal Systems and the Rule of Law</a> was in preparation, with this network&rsquo;s annual conference being furthermore dedicated to &ldquo;<a href="https://backend.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/p_eli/Annual_Conference/2026/2026_ELI_AC_English.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Europe and the Rule of Law: Cultural Engagement and Legal Resilience</a>&rdquo;.</p>
<h2>Negative Spillover Effects of Membership (In)Action</h2>
<p>Beyond the direct reputational damage, the presence of compromised (or bogus) courts and illegal judges in judicial or professional legal networks raises the issue of these networks&rsquo; compliance with their own constitutional documents and the genuine nature of their professed attachment to the rule of law.</p>
<p>As far as judicial networks are concerned, a failure to police membership is also bound to indirectly and more broadly undermine the reputation of all the national judiciaries represented in these networks. Another indirect effect follows from the inclusion of illegal judges: By legitimising them at a supranational level, judicial and professional networks not only hinder rule of law restoration efforts within the relevant Member State, they also undermine efforts to uphold the rule of law in all EU Member States, by sending the message that leisurely, if not &agrave; la carte, compliance with CJEU and ECtHR rulings is acceptable.</p>
<p>Failure to control membership furthermore entails a precedential effect for other judicial or professional networks, who could be tempted to align themselves with a negligent example. Indeed, in the case of the ELI, inaction from other networks was used as cover to embrace the membership applications of Poland&rsquo;s SC and SAC. This is why proper enforcement by the relevant networks of their own membership standards is important, as it would facilitate rule of law restoration efforts in Poland and elsewhere by making clear that lawlessness &ndash; and those benefiting from it &ndash; will not be tolerated both legally and professionally.</p>
<p>Temporary suspensions or the outright rejection of membership applications ought to be the default setting for bodies/individuals whose situation has already been addressed by the ECtHR and/or the CJEU. Conversely, a failure to suspend/expel bodies and individuals masquerading as courts and judges respectively &ndash; or worse, welcoming them &ndash; could have consequences for the relevant networks.</p>
<p>In the short term, the European Commission should consider removing the NPSJC and the CECC from its <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/document/72742fd9-3ce0-4d23-9086-58f885f84cdd_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">list of key stakeholders</a> to be consulted prior to the publication of its annual rule of law report, until they take due account of relevant judgments of the CJEU and the ECtHR in respect of their membership. A financial conditionality type approach should also be considered. EU funding schemes typically require adherence to Article 2 TEU values. Where, for instance, a network seeks EU funding to undertake rule of law-related activities, while simultaneously disregarding European case law, eligibility for EU funding may be doubtful.</p>
<p>The European judicial and professional networks mentioned in this post have played a key role in promoting the rule of law, an aspect they are keen to emphasise. The time has come for them to also walk the walk when it comes to their own membership.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/normalising-lawlessness-via-membership/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Normalising Lawlessness via Membership</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-03T12:38:57+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Laurent Pech</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-03T12:38:57+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="cjeu"/>

	<category term="ecthr"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu rule of law framework"/>

	<category term="europa"/>

	<category term="polen"/>

	<category term="polish supreme court"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-03:/289447</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-heizungsgesetz-die-demokratie-und-der-rechtsstaat/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Das Heizungsgesetz, die Demokratie und der Rechtsstaat</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Die deutsche Wirtschaft steckt in der Krise. Um &bdquo;&Uuml;berregulierung&ldquo; und &bdquo;B&uuml;rokratisierung&ldquo; abzubauen, ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Die deutsche Wirtschaft steckt in der Krise. Um &bdquo;&Uuml;berregulierung&ldquo; und &bdquo;B&uuml;rokratisierung&ldquo; abzubauen, r&uuml;ckt zunehmend das Umwelt- und Klimaschutzrecht in den Fokus. Besonders viel <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/warmewende-foderalismus-heizungsgesetz/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aufmerksamkeit</a> erhielt dabei zuletzt das sog. &bdquo;Heizungsgesetz&ldquo;. Mit dem im Mai 2026 vom Bundeskabinett verabschiedeten Entwurf des Geb&auml;udemodernisierungsgesetzes (GModG) soll nun das politisch umstrittene Geb&auml;udeenergiegesetz (GEG) angepasst werden. Die pauschale Vorgabe, dass jede neu eingebaute Heizung zu mindestens 65 Prozent mit erneuerbaren Energien betrieben werden muss, entf&auml;llt. Das Betriebsverbot f&uuml;r &uuml;ber 30 Jahre alte &Ouml;l- und Gasheizungen wird aufgehoben, so dass funktionierende Heizungen unbegrenzt weiterlaufen und repariert werden d&uuml;rfen. Stattdessen wird eine sog. &bdquo;Bio-Treppe&ldquo; angek&uuml;ndigt, wonach neue Gas- und &Ouml;lheizungen schrittweise mit ansteigenden Quoten klimaneutraler Brennstoffe (wie Biogas oder gr&uuml;nen Wasserstoff) heizen m&uuml;ssen. Diese Anpassungen sollen erfolgen, obwohl neben dem Verkehrssektor vor allem der Geb&auml;udesektor mit Blick auf die rechtsverbindlichen Klimaziele des Pariser Klimaabkommens, des Klimagesetzes der Europ&auml;ischen Union (EU) und des deutschen Klimaschutzgesetzes (KSG) massiv hinterherhinkt. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist eine Debatte entbrannt, ob die geplante &Auml;nderung des Heizungsgesetzes gegen (verfassungs-)rechtliche Vorgaben verst&ouml;&szlig;t. Zugleich wird diskutiert, ob im Umwelt- und Klimaschutz eine mit Blick auf das Demokratieprinzip problematische &bdquo;&Uuml;berkonstitutionalisierung&ldquo; besteht.</p>
<h2>Demokratie und &Auml;nderung der Klimapolitik</h2>
<p>Dass neue Mehrheiten Gesetze &auml;ndern k&ouml;nnen, geh&ouml;rt zum Kern der Demokratie. Der Klimabeschluss des Bundesverfassungsgerichts (BVerfG) betont dies ausdr&uuml;cklich &ndash; kn&uuml;pft daran aber prozedurale Bedingungen. Wer das Klimaschutzgesetz &auml;ndern will, das Art. 20a GG konkretisiert, tr&auml;gt eine besondere Begr&uuml;ndungspflicht. Insoweit hei&szlig;t es im Klimabeschluss des BVerfG:</p>
<blockquote><p><em>&bdquo;Wegen der nach heutigem Stand weitestgehenden Unumkehrbarkeit des Klimawandels w&auml;re eine &Uuml;berschreitung der zum Schutz des Klimas einzuhaltenden Temperaturschwelle jedoch nur unter engen Voraussetzungen &ndash; etwa zum Schutz von Grundrechten &ndash; zu rechtfertigen. Zudem nimmt das relative Gewicht des Klimaschutzgebots in der Abw&auml;gung bei fortschreitendem Klimawandel weiter zu. [&hellip;] Wollte der Gesetzgeber dem Klimaschutzrecht eine grundlegende Neuausrichtung geben, m&uuml;sste diese als solche erkennbar und damit auch f&uuml;r die politische &Ouml;ffentlichkeit diskutierbar sein. Hintergrund der ausdr&uuml;cklichen Hervorhebung der Gesetzgebung in Art.&nbsp;20a GG und der Anerkennung einer Konkretisierungspr&auml;rogative des Gesetzgebers ist gerade, dass die besondere Bedeutung der Schutzg&uuml;ter des Art.&nbsp;20a GG und deren Spannungsverh&auml;ltnis zu etwaigen gegenl&auml;ufigen Belangen in demokratischer Verantwortung zu einem Ausgleich gebracht werden m&uuml;ssen und die Gesetzgebung hierf&uuml;r den geeigneten Rahmen bietet.&rdquo; </em>BVerfGE 157, 30 (Rn. 198, 213).</p></blockquote>
<h2>Rechtsstaatliche Grenzen einer &Auml;nderung der Klimapolitik</h2>
<p>Die demokratische Gestaltungsfreiheit wird im Rechtsstaat aber auch durch materielle Vorgaben der Verfassung eingeschr&auml;nkt. Die Verfassung ist als Rahmenordnung, die der Politik Grenzen setzt, anerkannt. Das gilt auch f&uuml;r die Klimapolitik.</p>
<p>Was das Recht im Klimaschutz mindestens verlangt, ergibt sich aus weitgehend parallelen Vorgaben: dem Grundgesetz, der Europ&auml;ischen Menschenrechtskonvention (EMRK), dem Unionsrecht und dem V&ouml;lkerrecht einschlie&szlig;lich des Pariser Klimaabkommens. Gefordert ist hiernach ein rechtsverbindliches, geeignetes, wirksames und angemessenes sowie integriertes und koh&auml;rentes Schutzkonzept, das nicht nur auf Gefahrenabwehr, sondern auch auf Risiko- und Ressourcenvorsorge ausgerichtet ist. Dieses Konzept l&auml;sst sich in acht Bausteinen konkretisieren (teilweise in Anlehnung an <em>Calliess/G. Kirchhof</em>, <a href="https://klimaunion.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Rechtsgutachten_C.-Calliess-G.-Kirchhof-Klimaschutz-Rote-Linien-des-Rechts.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rote Linien des Rechts im Klimaschutz</a>, Gutachten im Auftrag der Klimaunion, M&auml;rz 2025, S. 77 ff. mit weiteren Nachweisen):</p>
<p>(1) Selbst wenn Deutschland aus dem Pariser Klimaabkommen &nbsp;austreten w&uuml;rde, w&auml;re es noch immer aus dem V&ouml;lkergewohnheitsrecht verpflichtet, das Temperaturziel von 1,5 Grad zu erreichen (IGH, im Ergebnis auch EGMR, BVerfG) und w&uuml;rde insoweit haften.</p>
<p>(2) Die v&ouml;lkerrechtlichen Vorgaben konkretisierend, verpflichtet das Europ&auml;ische Klimagesetz Deutschland, bis sp&auml;testens 2050 Treibhausgasneutralit&auml;t zu erreichen. &Uuml;berdies muss Deutschland die Ma&szlig;nahmen des Green Deals &ndash; darunter &bdquo;Fit for 55&ldquo; &ndash; und den Emissionshandel in allen Sektoren umsetzen. Nur der Gesetzgeber der EU kann diese mit den entsprechenden Mehrheiten &auml;ndern. Dabei ist aber auch er rechtlich an das V&ouml;lkerrecht gebunden.</p>
<p>(3) Das Schutzkonzept hat die menschliche Gesundheit (Art. 2 Abs. 2 GG) und die Umwelt samt Klima (Art. 20a GG) in geeigneter, wirksamer und koh&auml;renter Weise zu sch&uuml;tzen und zu erhalten (BVerfG, analog EGMR, EuGH). Die Belange des Klimaschutzes m&uuml;ssen im Rahmen der gebotenen Politikintegration nach Art.&nbsp;11 AEUV mit den umweltexternen Politiken (Verkehr, Geb&auml;ude, Landwirtschaft etc.) koh&auml;rent verzahnt werden und ihr sichtbarer Bestandteil sein (vgl. IGH, EuGH).</p>
<p>(4) Da das Grundgesetz im Sinne der internationalen Klimaziele v&ouml;lker- und europarechtsfreundlich auszulegen ist, spielt es aus rechtlicher Sicht keine Rolle, dass Deutschland nur einen geringen Teil der weltweiten Treibhausgase emittiert (BVerfG, EGMR, IGH).</p>
<p>(5) Die mit dem Schutzkonzept notwendig verbundenen Freiheitseingriffe sind &bdquo;gerecht&ldquo; &uuml;ber die Zeit bis 2050 zu verteilen. Eine sp&auml;te &bdquo;Vollbremsung&ldquo; im Zuge verschobener Klimaschutzma&szlig;nahmen muss vermieden werden (BVerfG, &auml;hnlich EGMR).</p>
<p>(6) Daher muss im Schutzkonzept ein konkreter Pfad mit Zeitplan samt Zwischenzielen f&uuml;r die Reduzierung der Treibhausgasemissionen festgelegt werden, der vorhersehbar und verl&auml;sslich sicherstellt, dass die Reduktionsziele bis sp&auml;testens 2050 erreicht werden (BVerfG, EGMR).</p>
<p>(7) &Uuml;berdies sind im Kontext der klimasch&uuml;tzenden Ma&szlig;nahmen hinreichende Informations- und Beteiligungspflichten zu regeln; ein wirksamer Zugang zu den Gerichten bis hin zu einer Verbandsklage ist zu gew&auml;hrleisten (EGMR).</p>
<p>(8) &Auml;nderungen zu Lasten des Klimaschutzes l&ouml;sen erhebliche Begr&uuml;ndungs- und Darlegungspflichten aus. Zudem gewinnen Klimabelange im Zuge der fortschreitenden Erderw&auml;rmung &uuml;ber die Zeit bis 2050 ein immer st&auml;rkeres rechtliches Gewicht in der Abw&auml;gung mit gegenl&auml;ufigen Interessen (BVerfG, EGMR, IGH).</p>
<p>Das Erfordernis eines solchen Schutzkonzepts ist eine rechtliche Mindestvorgabe, die sich mit den Vorgaben der Rechtsprechung deckt (BVerfG, EGMR, IGH) und daher gerichtlich durchsetzbar ist. Dieser rechtlich gebotene Mindestschutz korrespondiert in Deutschland mit dem Ma&szlig;stab des Unterma&szlig;verbots als gerichtlicher Kontrollnorm. Das erforderliche Schutzkonzept kann deshalb nicht einfach aufgegeben werden, ohne dass ein gleichwertiges alternatives Konzept erlassen wird, das im Hinblick auf das Ziel der Treibhausgasneutralit&auml;t bis sp&auml;testens 2050 vergleichbar geeignet und wirksam ist und die genannten rechtlichen Mindestanforderungen erf&uuml;llt. &bdquo;Ob&ldquo; ein solches Schutzkonzept besteht, unterliegt somit keinem politischen Ermessen des Gesetzgebers.</p>
<h2>Politischer Gestaltungsspielraum hinsichtlich des &bdquo;Wie&ldquo; und Verschlechterungsverbot</h2>
<p>Ein politischer Gestaltungsspielraum besteht allerdings hinsichtlich der Frage des &bdquo;Wie&ldquo;. In diesem Kontext wird ein sog. &bdquo;Verschlechterungsverbot&ldquo; oder auch &bdquo;R&uuml;ckschrittsverbot&ldquo; diskutiert, das m&ouml;glicherweise einer Abschw&auml;chung von einzelnen Gesetzen, die dem Klimaschutz dienen, wie z.B. dem Heizungsgesetz, entgegensteht.</p>
<p>Der Begriff des Verschlechterungsverbots findet sich explizit bislang weder in der Rechtsprechung des BVerfG noch in derjenigen des EGMR. In der Rechtsprechung des EuGH hat das Verschlechterungsverbot bislang nur im Wasserrecht Bedeutung erlangt, da der Unionsgesetzgeber den Begriff hier eingef&uuml;hrt hatte, ihn nun aber auch im Naturschutzrecht und Geb&auml;udeenergierecht einsetzt. &Uuml;ber die Umsetzung des einschl&auml;gigen Unionsrechts hat der Rechtsbegriff auch in das deutsche Umwelt- und Energierecht Eingang gefunden. Im Wege der Auslegung l&auml;sst sich &uuml;berdies das Progressionsgebot in &sect;&nbsp;3 Abs.&nbsp;4 S.&nbsp;2 KSG als Regressionsverbot und damit als Verschlechterungsverbot interpretieren. Der einfache Gesetzgeber kann diese Norm jedoch jederzeit &auml;ndern &ndash; es sei denn, das Verschlechterungsverbot findet eine Verankerung im h&ouml;herrangigen Recht.</p>
<p>Genau das bejahen viele Stimmen im Schrifttum: Sie leiten ein Verschlechterungsverbot aus Art.&nbsp;20a GG und Art. 191 Abs. 1 AEUV ab. Inhalt und Reichweite sind allerdings umstritten. Einige Stimmen sind mit Blick auf den Staatszielcharakter des Art.&nbsp;20a GG zur&uuml;ckhaltend und halten eine gesetzgeberische Absenkung des normativen Schutzniveaus f&uuml;r m&ouml;glich, wenn die Gef&auml;hrdung eines konfligierenden Verfassungsguts nicht anders abgewendet werden kann, dem Gesetzgeber also andere, die bestehenden Umweltstandards weniger beeintr&auml;chtigende, Alternativen nicht zur Verf&uuml;gung stehen. Von anderen Stimmen wird das in Art.&nbsp;20a GG verankerte Verschlechterungsverbot demgegen&uuml;ber als striktes R&uuml;ckschrittsverbot verstanden, wonach jede oder zumindest jede sp&uuml;rbare Abschw&auml;chung des rechtlichen Schutzniveaus gegen Art.&nbsp;20a GG versto&szlig;en soll. Dar&uuml;ber hinaus nehmen einige Stimmen ein allgemeines Verschlechterungsverbot an, das nicht auf einzelne Schutzg&uuml;ter, sondern auf die faktische Umweltsituation insgesamt zielt. Eingriffe in ein Umweltgut bleiben somit m&ouml;glich, bed&uuml;rfen jedoch eines ad&auml;quaten Ausgleichs. Im Vergleich weniger ausdifferenziert ist die Diskussion mit Blick auf Art.&nbsp;191 Abs.&nbsp;1 AEUV. Hier wird die Vorgabe, die Umwelt zu erhalten, als grunds&auml;tzliches Verschlechterungsverbot, das im Sinne eines &ouml;kologischen Bestandsschutzes wirkt, interpretiert.</p>
<h2>Normatives Verschlechterungsverbot und Kompensationspflicht</h2>
<p>Wortlaut und Zweck von Art.&nbsp;20a GG bzw. Art. 191 Abs. 1 AEUV sprechen daf&uuml;r, dass die beiden Normen ein verfassungsrechtliches Verschlechterungsverbot enthalten. Da der Zustand der Umwelt als Ganzes schwer messbar ist und eine Absenkung des gesetzlichen Schutzniveaus faktische Verschlechterungen vermuten l&auml;sst, gen&uuml;gt es, auf ihre Wirkung als normatives Verschlechterungsverbot abzustellen. Dieses steht jedoch in einem Spannungsverh&auml;ltnis zum Demokratieprinzip &ndash; namentlich zu den ihm immanenten Grunds&auml;tzen der Revisibilit&auml;t und Reversibilit&auml;t. Der demokratische Gestaltungsraum des Gesetzgebers verlangt daher, dass eine partielle R&uuml;cknahme umweltrechtlicher Normen zugunsten anderer gewichtiger Verfassungsg&uuml;ter m&ouml;glich bleibt; vor allem dann, wenn dem Gesetzgeber keine weniger einschneidenden Alternativen zur Verf&uuml;gung stehen. Ein Abbau umweltsch&uuml;tzender Vorschriften muss im Lichte des Demokratieprinzips insbesondere dann zul&auml;ssig sein, wenn eine normative Kompensation erfolgt, die im Ergebnis ein vergleichbares faktisches Schutzniveau sichert.</p>
<p>Aspekte eines verfassungsrechtlichen Verschlechterungsverbots klingen auch im Klimabeschluss des BVerfG an, wenn darauf hingewiesen wird, dass sich eine</p>
<blockquote><p><em>&bdquo;Neuausrichtung an schw&auml;cheren Klimaschutzzielen wegen des damit verbundenen &ouml;kologischen R&uuml;ckschritts vor Art. 20a GG rechtfertigen lassen [m&uuml;sste], sofern nicht neuere hinreichend gesicherte Erkenntnisse in der Klimaforschung ergeben, dass die Erderw&auml;rmung geringeres Sch&auml;digungspotenzial hat, als dies derzeit zu bef&uuml;rchten ist.&ldquo;</em> BVerfGE 157, 30 (Rn. 212).</p></blockquote>
<p>Somit sind mit Blick auf das gesetzgeberische Schutzkonzept neue wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse und der technische Fortschritt immer wieder zu ber&uuml;cksichtigen. Insoweit gilt aber mit Blick auf den noch zul&auml;ssigen deutschen Anteil an den globalen CO2-Emissionen eine Grenze:</p>
<blockquote><p><em>&bdquo;Die Gr&ouml;&szlig;e der zur Wahrung der Temperaturschwelle verbleibenden Emissionsmenge l&auml;sst sich derzeit nicht so exakt ermitteln, dass die &hellip; Budgetgr&ouml;&szlig;e ein zahlengenaues Ma&szlig; f&uuml;r die verfassungsgerichtliche Kontrolle bieten k&ouml;nnte. Jedoch darf der Gesetzgeber Wertungsspielr&auml;ume nicht nach politischem Belieben ausf&uuml;llen. Besteht wissenschaftliche Ungewissheit &uuml;ber umweltrelevante Ursachenzusammenh&auml;nge, setzt Art.&nbsp;20a GG den Entscheidungen des Gesetzgebers &ndash; zumal solchen mit unumkehrbaren Folgen f&uuml;r die Umwelt &ndash; vielmehr Grenzen und erlegt ihm, auch in Verantwortung f&uuml;r die k&uuml;nftigen Generationen, eine besondere Sorgfaltspflicht auf. Ausdruck dieser besonderen Sorgfaltspflicht ist jedenfalls, dass der Gesetzgeber bereits belastbare Hinweise auf die M&ouml;glichkeit gravierender oder irreversibler Beeintr&auml;chtigungen &ndash; jeweils in Ansehung ihrer Belastbarkeit &ndash; ber&uuml;cksichtigen muss</em>.&ldquo; BVerfGE 157, 30 (Rn. 229).</p></blockquote>
<h2>Schlussfolgerungen</h2>
<p>Eine vollst&auml;ndige und ersatzlose Aufhebung des Schutzkonzepts &ndash; wie es etwa im europ&auml;ischen oder deutschen Klimaschutzgesetz zum Ausdruck kommt &ndash; w&uuml;rde gegen den europarechtlich (Art. 11, 191 AEUV) bzw. verfassungsrechtlich gebotenen Mindestschutz (Art.&nbsp;20a GG; Schutzpflichten) versto&szlig;en. Das Unterma&szlig;verbot wirkt insoweit als absolutes Verschlechterungsverbot, das diesen Mindestschutz absichert. Es betrifft allerdings &bdquo;nur&rdquo; das (durch internationales und europ&auml;isches Recht konkretisierte) &bdquo;Ob&rdquo; des Klimaschutzes. In diesem Rahmen ist der Gestaltungsraum des demokratischen Gesetzgebers beschr&auml;nkt. Da die &Auml;nderung des Heizungsgesetzes das Schutzkonzept, wie es insbesondere das KSG festschreibt, nicht so grundlegend ver&auml;ndert, dass dies seiner Aufhebung gleichk&auml;me, kann der Gesetzgeber hier nicht gegen das &nbsp;absolute Verschlechterungsverbot versto&szlig;en.</p>
<p>Bei der &Auml;nderung des Heizungsgesetzes geht es vielmehr um das &bdquo;Wie&ldquo; des Klimaschutzes. Im Rahmen des Schutzkonzepts (also jenseits des Mindestschutzes) entfaltet sich der demokratische Gestaltungsraum des Gesetzgebers. Er kann mit Blick auf &uuml;berragend wichtige gegenl&auml;ufige Verfassungsg&uuml;ter &Auml;nderungen an der inhaltlichen Konkretisierung des Schutzkonzepts vornehmen. Insoweit ist auch eine partielle Abschw&auml;chung umweltrechtlicher Normen zugunsten anderer &uuml;berragend wichtiger Verfassungsg&uuml;ter m&ouml;glich. In diesem Fall verlangt allerdings das normative Verschlechterungsverbot, dass das faktische Schutzniveau im Ergebnis beibehalten werden muss. Die Abschw&auml;chung muss also normativ kompensiert werden. Wie diese Kompensation aussieht, entscheidet der Gesetzgeber mit einer gewissen Flexibilit&auml;t. Er muss mit Blick auf die Bausteine des Schutzkonzepts lediglich transparent begr&uuml;nden und nachweisen, dass der alternative Pfad zur Treibhausgasneutralit&auml;t im Rahmen des inhaltlich angepassten Schutzes gleich geeignet, wirksam und koh&auml;rent ist und zugleich eine klimapolitische &bdquo;Vollbremsung&ldquo; vermeidet, so dass die Freiheit &uuml;ber die Zeit bis 2050 generationengerecht verteilt wird. Einzelne Ma&szlig;nahmen des Schutzkonzepts d&uuml;rfen abgeschw&auml;cht werden, nicht aber das Schutzkonzept als Ganzes.</p>
<p>In diesem Rahmen sind verschiedene Aspekte zu gewichten: Zum einen ist fraglich, ob der Entwurf zur &Auml;nderung des Heizungsgesetzes &uuml;berhaupt dem B&uuml;rokratieabbau dient. So <a href="https://www.normenkontrollrat.bund.de/Webs/NKR/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Stellungnahmen/2026/nkr-nr-8108.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">erwartet der Normenkontrollrat</a> durch die Neuregelung hohen b&uuml;rokratischen Kontrollaufwand, massive Vollzugsdefizite und Rechtsunsicherheit f&uuml;r B&uuml;rger durch neue Berichtspflichten. Zum anderen &nbsp;wirft die normative Konzeption Fragen auf. Die &bdquo;Bio-Treppe&rdquo; ist noch nicht Gesetz, sondern erst politisch vereinbart. &Uuml;berdies k&ouml;nnte man meinen, die Abschw&auml;chung im Geb&auml;udesektor werde durch marktwirtschaftliche Instrumente kompensiert &ndash; doch auch der CO2-Emissionshandel f&uuml;r Geb&auml;ude steht wegen gestiegener Energiepreise unter Druck. &nbsp;Seine Einf&uuml;hrung auf EU-Ebene wurde bis 2028 verschoben; die Bepreisung im deutschen System d&uuml;rfte bis dahin eingefroren werden oder gar durch einen politischen &bdquo;Heizrabatt&rdquo; g&auml;nzlich entfallen. &nbsp;Hinzu kommt, dass auch der aktuelle Bericht des vom KSG eingesetzten Expertenrats f&uuml;r Klimafragen vom 18. Mai 2026 mit Blick auf das Emissionsbudget bis 2030 von einer Zielverfehlung ausgeht, da insbesondere die Sektoren Verkehr und Geb&auml;ude ihre Vorgaben verfehlen. Insoweit m&uuml;sste das Klimaschutzprogramm der Bundesregierung eigentlich nachsteuern. Dies gilt umso mehr, wenn die Vorgaben im Geb&auml;udesektor durch das ge&auml;nderte Heizungsgesetz abgeschw&auml;cht werden.</p>
<p>Wenn nun die vorstehend &nbsp;skizzierten rechtlichen Rahmenvorgaben im Schrifttum (u.a. von dem Erlanger Umweltrechtler Bernhard W. Wegener) als demokratie- und parlamentsfeindliche &bdquo;Totalkonstitutionalisierung&ldquo; kritisiert werden, hilft eine Testfrage: Wollte der Gesetzgeber in der Wohnungspolitik neue Akzente setzen und im Rahmen einer staatlichen Bewirtschaftung des Wohnungsmarktes in den Gro&szlig;st&auml;dten Wohnungsunternehmen enteignen, w&auml;ren ihm dabei durch Grundrechte Grenzen gesetzt. Diese Beschr&auml;nkung gilt allgemein als Ausdruck der rechtsstaatlichen Rahmung der parlamentarischen Demokratie, wie sie das Grundgesetz vorsieht. Warum sollte das in der Klima- und Umweltpolitik anders sein?</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-heizungsgesetz-die-demokratie-und-der-rechtsstaat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Das Heizungsgesetz, die Demokratie und der Rechtsstaat</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-03T09:44:15+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Christian Calliess</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-03T09:44:15+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="art. 20a gg"/>

	<category term="bundes-klimaschutzgesetz"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="eu climate target"/>

	<category term="heizungsgesetz"/>

	<category term="klimabeschluss"/>

	<category term="paris agreement"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-03:/289448</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/sir-judgment-supreme-court-india-election-commission/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Power Without Oversight</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Last week, the Indian Supreme Court delivered an important verdict on the power of the Election Comm...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Last week, the Indian Supreme Court delivered an important verdict on the power of the Election Commission of India (ECI) under the Indian Constitution &ndash; specifically, whether, and in what manner, it can conduct the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise for the revision of electoral voter rolls. Unlike minor revisions, SIR is a large-scale revision exercise to clean the electoral rolls by removing duplicate entries and names of those who have either migrated or died. They have been at the centre of intense public controversy since early 2025, when the ECI began conducting phase-wise SIRs across India. The exercise was conducted on the eve of elections in the state of Bihar and has since been conducted for other states, including West Bengal, Assam, and Tamil Nadu, triggering fears of large-scale <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/apr/22/india-west-bengal-state-elections-millions-stripped-of-vote" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">disenfranchisement</a>. The judgment (<a href="https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2025/35785/35785_2025_1_1501_71617_Judgement_27-May-2026.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Association for Democratic Reforms &amp; Ors. v Election Commission of India</em></a>) emerged from a cluster of writ petitions challenging the constitutional validity of the Bihar SIR, and was delivered on 27 May 2026, by which point the Bihar elections of November 2025 had already been held and a new government formed.</p>
<p>Taking stock of the constitutional and legislative structures, the Court upheld the exercise. It noted that <a href="https://indiankanoon.org/doc/950881/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 324 of the Constitution</a>, which constitutes the Election Commission of India with the obligation of &ldquo;superintendence, direction, and control of elections,&rdquo; confers plenary powers upon the ECI over the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of elections, and that Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act 1950 provides an enabling provision permitting a special intensive revision &ldquo;at any time, for reasons to be recorded, and in such manner as [the Commission] may think fit.&rdquo; The Court also examined the SIR guidelines through a four-limb proportionality analysis: whether the exercise pursued a legitimate purpose; whether there was a rational nexus between the measures adopted and that purpose; whether the means were the least restrictive available; and whether there was a fair balance between the objective and the limitation placed upon the right to vote. On each count, the Court found in favour of the ECI.</p>
<p>The judgment is significant in its own right, and commentaries have been written discussing the misapplication of the proportionality analysis by the Court (see <a href="https://indconlawphil.wordpress.com/2026/05/29/adr-v-union-the-sir-judgment-we-will-not-protect-you/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a> and <a href="https://indconlawphil.wordpress.com/2026/06/01/democratic-decay-and-judicial-newspeak-proportionality-disenfranchisement-and-sir-judgment-guest-post/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). But beyond the specifics of the case, the legal backdrop in which it was delivered offers important insights for comparative constitutional law scholars, particularly those studying fourth branch institutions, electoral management bodies, and constitutional design.</p>
<h2>Fourth Branch Institutions Are Not a Silver Bullet</h2>
<p>The creation of independent electoral management bodies, anti-corruption watchdogs, auditors general, and human rights commissions &ndash; what scholars have come to call &ldquo;fourth branch&rdquo; or &ldquo;guarantor&rdquo; institutions &ndash; has become a feature of constitutional design, particularly in newer democracies. The logic is to take certain crucial functions out of the hands of politically interested actors and vest them in institutions insulated from the partisan calculus. Elections are an obvious candidate for this kind of protection.</p>
<p>But this logic, while compelling, is incomplete. As <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3997808" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Tarunabh Khaitan</a> argues, guarantor institutions are not self-executing solutions. Simply removing power from political institutions and vesting it in a fourth branch body does not, by itself, guarantee good outcomes. The transfer of functions away from elected branches to insulated institutions reduces the domain of political play and democratic contestation in ways that carry their own risks. Badly designed guarantor institutions can themselves become instruments of the very pathologies they were created to prevent.</p>
<p>For guarantor institutions to function effectively, Khaitan identifies three indispensable design requirements: sufficient competence and expertise to perform their functions; sufficient independence from actors with an interest in frustrating the relevant constitutional norm; and sufficient accountability to actors with an interest in upholding it. These factors constitute the difference between a guarantor institution that credibly secures a constitutional commitment and one that becomes an additional vector of risk. The Indian Election Commission is a vivid case study in what happens when these requirements are not given equal weight.</p>
<h2>Independence: The Unresolved Problem</h2>
<p>The ECI&rsquo;s independence has been the subject of long-running discussion, including on this blog (see <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/democracy-and-the-election-commission-of-india/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a> and <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/eroding-independence/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>). The appointment of Election Commissioners, including the Chief Election Commissioner, has historically been at the discretion of the ruling executive, with no requirement for consultative or multi-partisan processes. As M. Mohsin Alam Bhat has <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3909233" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">shown</a> in his detailed study of the ECI&rsquo;s structural accountability, the precariousness of the ECI&rsquo;s personnel arrangements has a long and troubling history: from the Congress government&rsquo;s last-minute appointment and subsequent rescission of additional election commissioners in 1989&ndash;90 for what were widely perceived to be partisan reasons to the later creation of additional commissioners expressly to dilute the authority of an activist Chief Election Commissioner in 1993. In both episodes, the Supreme Court&rsquo;s interventions compounded rather than resolved the structural problem. As Bhat observes, what was &ldquo;missing in <em>Seshan</em> was the appreciation &ndash; and crucially, a theory &ndash; of institutional independence.&rdquo;</p>
<p>The Indian Supreme Court eventually attempted a belated structural correction. In 2023, the Court in <a href="https://www.scobserver.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/1458_2015_3_1501_42634_Judgement_02-Mar-2023.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Anoop Baranwal v Union of India</em></a> ordered that Election Commissioners be appointed by a panel including the Chief Justice of India and the Leader of the Opposition, thereby introducing a measure of multi-institutional oversight. Parliament responded with remarkable speed, enacting new legislation that effectively restored executive dominance over appointments by replacing the Court-mandated balanced panel with one that retains the ruling government&rsquo;s decisive influence. An appeal against this legislation remains pending. The episode illustrates precisely how a ruling party used its legislative majority to undo judicial corrections of institutional design, exploiting the absence of constitutional entrenchment.</p>
<h2>Accountability: The Greater Lacuna</h2>
<p>If the independence problem is serious, the accountability problem is arguably more severe. As <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3554603" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bhat</a> has shown, the ECI has gradually assumed vast regulatory power through what he characterises as extra-legal modalities: architectural regulation of the electoral environment, nudge-based enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct, and notice-based disclosure requirements. These forms of governance are pervasive and consequential, but they are also, by their very nature, resistant to conventional accountability mechanisms. They operate subtly, they are difficult to subject to legal scrutiny, and they leave wide discretion to the institution. Courts cannot easily assess whether a particular polling station placement, election schedule, or enforcement decision was appropriate. The result is regulatory power that escapes public scrutiny, almost as a structural feature of how it works.</p>
<p>The Indian Supreme Court has been an active architect of this dynamic. Bhat shows that the Court developed an expansive &ldquo;plenary powers&rdquo; jurisprudence, confirming that the ECI can regulate all areas &ldquo;left unoccupied by legislation.&rdquo; In a series of electoral reform cases in the 1990s and 2000s, the Court used the ECI as its ally &ndash; channelling transparency requirements through the Commission while simultaneously applying a &ldquo;framework of trust&rdquo; that insulated the institution from accountability. The framework of trust, based on the ECI&rsquo;s perceived competence, political independence, and ideological neutrality, generated judicial deference rather than scrutiny. While the Court applied demanding transparency standards to political actors under a &ldquo;framework of democracy,&rdquo; it treated the ECI&rsquo;s exercise of power as deserving deference. The consequence, as Bhat argues, is an institution that has accumulated enormous powers without a commensurate framework of operational accountability.</p>
<h2>The SIR Judgment: Plenary Powers, Absent Accountability</h2>
<p>The SIR judgment is a case in point. The Court has painstakingly demonstrated how the Constitution envisages plenary powers for the ECI over the entire electoral process, and how Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act authorises the ECI to conduct a special intensive revision &ldquo;at any time&rdquo; and &ldquo;in such manner as it may think fit&rdquo; when reasons are recorded. The upholding of the SIR exercise within this framework may seem legally coherent.</p>
<p>But the very coherence of this legal analysis exposes the accountability gap. When the Court affirms that the ECI has plenary powers in unlegislated areas, and when Parliament is either unwilling or unable, given the current configuration of political power, to legislate meaningful constraints and accountability mechanisms, the result is an institution exercising enormous constitutional authority with very limited oversight. In this environment, the accountability of the Commission becomes a central constitutional question. As things stand, there are serious live <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-challenges-to-democracy/backsliding-in-india/A0F266147D72B969067593337962800C" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">questions</a> about the ECI&rsquo;s independence from the ruling party, Parliament is not functioning as a meaningful check, and the courts are largely confined to reviewing the legality and proportionality of specific exercises rather than addressing the structural conditions that generate accountability deficits. A similar framework is evident in the Court&rsquo;s jurisprudence on the Office of the Speaker, as I discuss <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5553218" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.</p>
<p>Admittedly, the Court could not have resolved the structural problem through this litigation alone. The Court could have intervened more forcefully in how the SIR was conducted, mandating more inclusive procedures from the outset. But the deeper issue is one of institutional design. It can only be resolved through constitutional amendment or legislative reform, requiring a change in the political conditions that produced the present arrangements.</p>
<h2>Timing, Irreversibility, and the Limits of Post-Facto Remedies</h2>
<p>There is a further dimension that the SIR episode brings into focus: the timing of both the exercise and the judicial response. Conducting an intensive voter roll revision involving individual-level verification, name deletions, and, in some cases, challenges to citizenship status in the compressed window before a state election dramatically increases the risk of errors, and means that those errors are likely to materialise as substantive electoral consequences before they can be corrected.</p>
<p>This is precisely what happened in Bihar. The SIR exercise was conducted ahead of the November 2025 elections. The Supreme Court&rsquo;s judgment came on 27 May 2026, six months after the elections had concluded and a new government had been formed. Some of the Court&rsquo;s directions are valuable. Notably, the direction that in cases where the ECI is not satisfied that a person meets the conditions for inclusion on grounds of citizenship, the case must be referred to the competent authority under the Citizenship Act, and that &ldquo;the competent authority must decide such questions within a reasonable timeframe, and in any event, before the next Parliamentary, Legislative Assembly or Local Body election in the concerned State or constituency, so as to ensure that the individual&rsquo;s electoral rights are not left in a state of prolonged uncertainty.&rdquo;</p>
<p>But this very reasoning &ndash; that prolonged uncertainty about electoral rights causes serious harm that must be resolved promptly &ndash; should equally have supported pausing the exercise before the election. Those whose names were deleted before the Bihar vote have already lost the opportunity to participate in forming the government. And the consequences of disenfranchisement ripple well beyond the ballot box. Reports have emerged that the incoming state government in West Bengal <a href="https://scroll.in/latest/1092781/bengal-persons-excluded-in-sir-will-not-get-welfare-benefits-says-bjp-government" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">announced</a> it would not extend the benefits of welfare schemes to persons whose names did not appear on the electoral rolls.</p>
<p>The Court is, in part, itself responsible for this timing problem. The litigation was live during the exercise, and the Court did not stay it. It is also worth noting that regular electoral roll revisions occur before every election as a matter of routine. The intensive SIR exercise, given its scope, the attendant risk of errors, and the citizenship questions it raised, could have been timed to a period well clear of the electoral cycle. The logic that animates the observation &mdash; that citizenship determinations require careful process and timely resolution &mdash; applies with equal force to the decision of when to conduct an exercise that triggers them at scale.</p>
<h2>What This Tells Us About Fourth Branch Design</h2>
<p>Taken together, the SIR episode and the broader legal landscape of the ECI offer a valuable case study for the understanding of fourth branch institutions.</p>
<p>The first lesson is that competence alone is not enough. The ECI is, by most accounts, a technically capable institution. It has administered the world&rsquo;s largest democratic exercise with considerable logistical sophistication. But, as Khaitan observes, a guarantor institution with strong expertise can still fail if it lacks adequate independence or accountability. Conversely, as Bhat shows, technical capacity does not substitute for institutional integrity. An institution that is perceived as insufficiently independent and that operates without robust accountability mechanisms will find its competence contested and its legitimacy eroded, particularly in periods of single-party dominance when the political environment is least hospitable to the constraints that guarantor institutions are meant to impose.</p>
<p>The second lesson is that independence and accountability are not in tension. They rather point in different directions. There is a tendency in constitutional design to treat these values as necessarily trading off. The more independent an institution, the less accountable it can be, and vice versa. Khaitan&rsquo;s framework and Bhat&rsquo;s application of it to the ECI both challenge this. Independence and accountability address different relationships: a guarantor institution needs independence from those who would capture or frustrate it, and accountability to those who have an interest in the norms it is meant to uphold. These are different groups, and a well-designed institution can achieve both. The ECI&rsquo;s problem is not that it is too independent. If anything, its independence has proven insecure. The problem is that independence and accountability have each been under-designed, while power has been over-delegated.</p>
<p>The third lesson concerns the compounding role of courts. As Bhat&rsquo;s analysis demonstrates, the Indian Supreme Court has been a significant actor in shaping the ECI&rsquo;s constitutional status, including expanding its powers through the jurisprudence of deference while failing to develop corresponding accountability norms. The SIR judgment continues this pattern. Its proportionality analysis is methodologically sound. But it resolves the legality of a completed exercise without addressing the structural conditions, including the appointment regime, the parliamentary oversight deficit, and the absence of operational accountability frameworks, that made the exercise politically contestable in the first place. When courts defer to institutional expertise without requiring transparency or reason-giving, they become part of the accountability problem rather than part of the solution.</p>
<p>The SIR judgment, read alongside the scholarship on fourth branch institutions, is a reminder that the work around the development of sound fourth branch institutions remains very much unfinished in India. The costs of that incompleteness are now being borne by millions of voters.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/sir-judgment-supreme-court-india-election-commission/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Power Without Oversight</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-03T08:37:16+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Anmol Jain</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-03T08:37:16+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="election commission"/>

	<category term="fourth branch"/>

	<category term="independent institutions"/>

	<category term="indian supreme court"/>

	<category term="indien"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-02:/289377</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-mafia-state-in-hungary/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Rise and Fall of the Mafia-State in Hungary</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Ever since the elections, there has been a sense of euphoria sweeping the country that surpasses eve...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Ever since the elections, there has been a sense of euphoria sweeping the country that surpasses even the enthusiasm that followed the democratic transition of 1989. Yet, one of the key lessons drawn from both the revolutionary 1989 and the counter-revolutionary 2011 constitution-making processes is that both were elite-driven, lacking any participatory dimension &ndash; a shortcoming that may have contributed to the subsequent fall of liberal democracy. Today, two-thirds of Hungarians would like to see Viktor Orb&aacute;n brought to justice for the crimes he committed against them, and the overwhelming and enduring euphoria coursing through the country could yet channel itself into genuine &ldquo;constitutional enthusiasm&rdquo;. Perhaps Hungary has yet another chance to seize that constitutional moment.</p>
<h2>The Political System: Electoral Autocracy</h2>
<p>Since 2010 Hungary has received international attention for being the first fully consolidated democracy to turn into an autocracy. Both Freedom House and the Varieties of Democracy Project have tracked Hungary as it has passed from a &ldquo;consolidated&rdquo; democracy (Freedom House in 2010) through the &ldquo;partially consolidated&rdquo; category (Freedom House in 2015) into the status of a &ldquo;hybrid regime&rdquo; (Freedom House) or <a href="https://v-dem.net/documents/61/v-dem-dr__2025_lowres_v2.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;electoral autocracy&rdquo;</a> (V-Dem). Even the competitive character of the free and fair election system was called into question from the 2014 parliamentary elections onwards by <a href="https://odihr.osce.org/sites/default/files/documents/official_documents/2026/04/HUN%20Parliamentary%20Elections%202026%20PS_13.04.2026.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">International Election Observation Missions of OSCE/ODIHR</a>, including the 2026 election lost by Fidesz, where &ldquo;there was no level playing field, with the ruling party benefitting from systemic advantages that blurred the line between state and party&rdquo;.</p>
<p>After Orb&aacute;n immediately conceded his electoral defeat, some scholars who had even contested the non-democratic character of the regime started to see their view vindicated by the victory of the opposition. So did those, who from the very beginning threated the system as a <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Orban-Regime-Plebiscitary-Leader-Democracy-in-the-Making/Korosenyi-Illes-Gyulai/p/book/9781032474533" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;plebiscitary leader democracy&rdquo;</a>, where after the democratic elections the electorate entrusts governance to the charismatic leader, and this system will continue with P&eacute;ter Magyar. It is not hard to see that loss of the election and the leader&rsquo;s concession do not make the system retroactively democratic, just as the Communist regime did not become a democracy after the 1990 democratic elections in Hungary and elsewhere. With a landslide victory of 53 %, Tisza secured a two-thirds majority of the seats in a system that strongly favoured the expected winner, Fidesz, for whom 45% would have been enough to obtain the same qualified majority. All in all, the political system of the Orb&aacute;n regime can be characterized as an electoral autocracy, which even fails to fulfil all the requirements of a <a href="https://assets.cambridge.org/97805217/09156/frontmatter/9780521709156_frontmatter.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">competitive authoritarian hybrid regime</a>.</p>
<h2>The Socio-Economic Relations: Mafia State or Family Corruption Business</h2>
<p>Besides the descriptions of political scientists and constitutional law scholars, sociologists and economists emphasize the special role of corruption, which positioned Viktor Orb&aacute;n, the charismatic political leader of the political system, as the head of a mafia state or family corruption business. The sociologist B&aacute;lint Magyar, in his seminal book on <a href="https://dsps.ceu.edu/sites/pds.ceu.hu/files/attachment/event/773/magyarpost-communistmafiastatecaseofhungaryfinal2016_1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Hungarian mafia state</a>, asserts that not only the governing party Fidesz and the state of Hungary was placed under the control of a single individual, but the entire economy as well. Viktor Orb&aacute;n and his political family, Fidesz, employed mafia methods and concentrated wealth in the hands of a small group of insiders. While the traditional mafia usually channels wealth and economic players into its spheres of influence by means of direct coercion, Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s mafia state did the same by means of parliamentary legislation, legal prosecution, tax authority, police forces and the secret service.</p>
<p>David Jancsics, a corruption researcher, also describes the system of National Cooperation in which political power, the distribution of state resources, and economic accumulation are not separate spheres but are closely intertwined along a stable organizing principle: family relations. Here, Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s extended family, including his children and their families, but also his childhood friend and later gas-fitter, who, as his Stroman, has become nominally the richest person in the country, are not merely the beneficiaries of power. Rather, political power itself is systematically transformed into their intergenerational private property. This distinguishes the phenomenon from simple corruption.</p>
<h2>Reasons for Orb&aacute;n Regime&rsquo;s Fall</h2>
<p>As a constitutional scholar, I would love to say that the current defeat of Fidesz was exclusively caused by the dismantlement of liberal democracy, but unfortunately, I cannot. The truth is that more than half of the Hungarian voters have tolerated that or have been nonchalant for fifteen years till the living conditions started to deteriorate, and the extreme corruption of the mentioned mafia state with the enrichment and hubris of Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s larger &ldquo;dynasty&rdquo; and oligarchy has become impossible to ignore for all. In addition, a new voting generation has grown up for whom living without autonomy is not an option, and their voice proved decisive.</p>
<p>The economic hardship is due not only to bad economic policies but also to the suspended &ndash; and therefore missing &ndash; financial resources from the European Union, as a result of the long-awaited change in the European Union&rsquo;s attitude towards a Member State consequently defying the main European values: democracy, the rule of law, and protection of fundamental rights. After a decade of complicity, the EU using a value conditionality mechanism has frozen some 20 billion Euros in funds earmarked for Hungary over the government&rsquo;s democratic backsliding and corruption. The idea was that in this way Hungarian people, 70% of whom support the EU, would realize that the autocratic regime was contributing to the deterioration of their living standards. Hence, one can argue that this was a suitable policy decision by the EU, and note that indirectly the election result can also be considered as a rejection of Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s fight against the EU, especially among younger voters. Both young and old voters were supposed to be impressed by Trump&rsquo;s support and Vice President <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/world/hungary/vance-orban-hungary-maga-election-rcna267086" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">J. D. Vance&rsquo;s last-minute visit</a> to Budapest right before election day &ndash; but rather than helping Fidesz, it appears to have hindered their electoral chances: the current autocratic and oligarchic tendencies in the US are clearly in parallel with the disliked tendencies in Hungary.</p>
<p>Fidesz&rsquo;s fall is also due to the unprecedented rise of P&eacute;ter Magyar, who owes his rapidly growing popularity primarily to his focus on the unsuccessful economic policies and corruption of his former party, Fidesz. By contrast, values such as democracy, rule of law, and fundamental rights received little attention. The same is true of issues like migration, national sovereignty, and LGBTQ-rights (for instance, he did not appear with the 300.000 people on the streets of Budapest protesting against the government&rsquo;s ban of the Pride last June). On key foreign policy questions, he remained silent, and on Ukraine&rsquo;s EU membership he took position close to Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s.</p>
<p>In the Hungarian Parliament, Magyar refused any collaboration with the &ldquo;old&rdquo; opposition parties, distancing himself from any left/liberal ideas based on the conviction that his party can only beat Orb&aacute;n on its own. His implicit promise to his voters was roughly this: first we get rid of Orb&aacute;n, and then we can restore pluralism again. As a result of the current elections, besides the centrer-right Tisza Party, the far-right Fidesz, and the neo-Nazi Mi Haz&aacute;nk (Our Homeland), there are neither leftist nor liberal voices represented in the Parliament. His calculation to beat Fidesz turned out to be correct, but one of first issues to be solved by the new legislature should be to restore political pluralism by changing the disproportional election system constructed by Fidesz.</p>
<p>Thanks to the exceptionally large popular support, the new Prime Minister has realized the importance of the pluralist composition of his government and has selected politicians with a variety of political and ideological backgrounds. Many of the new policy measures are also supportive of Ukraine and LGBTQ people. From the very beginning, Magyar is seriously committed to complying with the European Union liberal democratic values in order to receive the suspended funds back, which amounts to 4-5% of the Hungarian GDP. Therefore, already in his <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/world/hungary/vance-orban-hungary-maga-election-rcna267086" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">victory speech</a>, he has pledged to change the illiberal constitution to comply with the EU&rsquo;s rule of law requests. He has called on the heads of key state institutions &ndash; the President of the Republic, the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the State Audit Office, the National Competition Authority and the Chief State Prosecutor &ndash; to step down voluntarily.</p>
<p>As none of those officials has yet indicated any willingness to step down, the government will need to elaborate its short-term plans for the restoration of liberal democratic constitutionalism. On 1 June, after a short <a href="https://infostart.hu/belfold/2026/06/01/magyar-peter-rendkivuli-tajekoztatoja-a-sandor-palotanal-cikkunk-frissul" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">visit to the President</a>, Prime Minister Magyar announced that within one month the government will submit an amendment to the Fundamental Law replacing him and the other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8675.12310" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;authoritarian enclaves.&rdquo;</a> There seems to be a consensus among constitutional scholars who support the renewal that the restoration must follow a <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungary-constitutional-repair/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">two-tier process</a>: starting with the necessary and quick amendments to the &ldquo;illiberal&rdquo; Fundamental Law, followed by a longer process of a new constitution-making.</p>
<h2>Restoring Constitutional Democracy in the Short Run</h2>
<p>In my view, even the first leg of the two-tier amendment process can have two phases: the adoption of the most urgent changes to the Fundamental Law, and a more systemic repeal of all its ideologically loaded provisions, found mostly in the National Avowal.</p>
<p>Among the urgent changes, on 20 May 2026, the Magyar government submitted the first amendment to the Parliament. One of the proposed changes is necessary to unfreeze Hungary&rsquo;s &euro;10.4 billion share of the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility, withheld over the violation of academic freedom through the &ldquo;privatization&rdquo; of public universities by the Orb&aacute;n government. To this end, the proposed amendment aims to reclassify the controversial new forms of the 21 transformed public universities &ndash; called &ldquo;public interest asset management foundations&rdquo; (known as KEKVAs in Hungarian) &ndash; as part of &ldquo;national wealth&rdquo;, transferring them back to the state and allowing the government to dissolve the foundations altogether.</p>
<p>The other amendment can be considered rather symbolic. It limits the prime minister&rsquo;s tenure to a maximum of eight years in office, in effect barring&nbsp;Viktor Orb&aacute;n&nbsp;from returning to the role. Contrary to some <a href="https://www.euractiv.com/news/the-orban-amendment-hungarys-new-government-tests-constitutional-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scholarly criticism</a>, the change does not represent retroactive legislation, as it concerns future conditions of holding the office of prime minister, but indeed its aim is plainly ad hominem &ndash; keeping Orb&aacute;n out of public office, although it will prevent Magyar to serve more than one additional term after the current one. That said, it is true that in parliamentary systems it is far less crucial to limit the terms of the executive power than in presidential ones.</p>
<p>The most urgent issue in avoiding a blocking of the democratic transition is to remove the authoritarian enclaves. The achieved two-thirds majority enables Magyar&rsquo;s party to change the Fundamental Law and the other cardinal laws requiring the qualified majority. However, it is disputed whether the mandate of incumbent high public officials can be terminated with retroactive effect. To be frank, the Orb&aacute;n government did exactly the same in 2010, when it expelled the President of the Supreme Court and the members of the National Election Commission (including the author of this piece) by simply changing the names of their institutions &ndash; renaming them to K&uacute;ria and Hungarian Election Commission respectively &ndash; and appointing loyal replacements. While Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s illiberal autocratic legalism violated the rule of law and served an arbitrary exercise of power, the new government aims to restore it. If this is to happen with deviations from the principle of the rule of law &ndash; such as the prohibition of retroactive legislation &ndash; these must be exceptional, temporary, serving a legitimate aim of reinstating constitutional democracy, proportional, and backed by broad public support.</p>
<h2>Exploiting a Constitutional Moment</h2>
<p>The societal support for the values of constitutionalism is equally important when replacing the illiberal Fundamental Law with a new liberal democratic constitution. One of the negative experiences of both the revolutionary 1989 and the counter-revolutionary 2011 constitution-making processes is that they were elitist acts, lacking any participatory elements &ndash; a factor that may have contributed to the subsequent fall of liberal democracy. Therefore, to achieve long-term democratic consolidation, the new government should start a cooperative effort by creating a diverse constituent power to draft a new constitution that emphasizes inclusivity over reliance on a mere two-thirds majority. This deliberative constitution-making process could help channel the current euphoria in the country into &ldquo;constitutional enthusiasm&rdquo;. As we know from Bruce Ackerman, this is needed for a <a href="https://oxcon.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law-mpeccol/law-mpeccol-e674" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">constitutional moment</a> &ndash; a juncture in history when constitutional change is driven by a particular mobilization and engagement of the demos, representing a transformative expression of popular sovereignty and a self-conscious act of consent by a majority of ordinary citizens. As Andr&aacute;s Saj&oacute; has argued, after 1989 there has not been such moment in Hungary, because there was no <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/icon/moi018" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;constitutional enthusiasm&rdquo;</a> by the people, who first and foremost expected the transition to deliver a speedy increase in living standards. Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s counter-revolution in 2010 was made easier by the fact that those expectations had been disappointed. However, the people have spoken, and Hungary has another chance to seize that moment.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-mafia-state-in-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The Rise and Fall of the Mafia-State in Hungary</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-02T12:21:30+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gábor Halmai</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-02T12:21:30+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="constitutional enthusiasm"/>

	<category term="constitutional moment"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="fidesz"/>

	<category term="orban"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-02:/289340</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/50-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Recht ohne Gericht, Gericht ohne Recht</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von&nbsp;FINE PRILL und PATRICK MARQUARDT Die 66. Junge Tagung &Ouml;ffentliches Recht (JT&Ouml;R) stand unter...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von&nbsp;FINE PRILL und PATRICK MARQUARDT Die 66. Junge Tagung &Ouml;ffentliches Recht (JT&Ouml;R) stand unter dem Leitthema &bdquo;Recht und Gericht&ldquo;. Das Tagungsthema legte damit den Finger in gleich zwei offene Wunden der V&ouml;lkerrechtswissenschaft, einerseits die Rechtsqualit&auml;t des Rechtsgebiets und andererseits die Rolle seiner Gerichtsbarkeit. Dieser Blogbeitrag beleuchtet die Diskurse der Tagung und den Stand der jungen...</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-02T08:00:10+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gastautorin</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-02T08:00:10+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="gerichte"/>

	<category term="jtoer"/>

	<category term="jtör"/>

	<category term="perspektiven des öffentlichen rechts"/>

	<category term="tagungen"/>

	<category term="völkerrecht"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-02:/289335</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/again-the-european-defence-community-is-dead/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Again, the European Defence Community Is Dead, Let It Rest in Peace</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Can the 1952 European Defence Community (EDC) be revived to supranationalize European defence in 202...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Can the 1952 European Defence Community (EDC) be revived to supranationalize European defence in 2026? My <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/on-reviving-the-1952-european-defence-community/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">earlier post</a> had raised serious doubts about the legal feasibility of this idea championed by <a href="https://alcideproject.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ALCIDE</a>; and these doubts have now been <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/why-the-european-defence-community-can-be-revived/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">scrutinized</a> by the project&rsquo;s two senior jurists: Federico Fabbrini and Franz C. Mayer. This rejoinder addresses their counterarguments and, therefore, briefly returns to the international and European law obstacles that the &ldquo;late&rdquo; ratifications of the 1952 EDC Treaty by Italy and France face. It also questions, once more, the political wisdom of reviving the NATO-led executive organization today, especially when alternative &ndash; and better &ndash; forms of European defence integration are currently explored. The European Parliament&rsquo;s 2023 proposal on a &ldquo;<a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2023-0427_EN.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Defence Union</a>&rdquo;, in particular, shall be discussed in this context, as it would simultaneously offer a more &ldquo;autonomous&rdquo;, &ldquo;democratic&rdquo; and &ldquo;pragmatic&rdquo; solution than a revived 1952 EDC.</p>
<h2>More International (and National) Law: The EDC Is Dead</h2>
<p>Are the Benelux countries as well as Germany still bound by their EDC ratifications from over 70 years ago? My main objection to ALCIDE&rsquo;s core idea was that it unjustifiably omits the 1954 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_European_Union" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Western European Union</a> (WEU) in combination with Article 59 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT).</p>
<p>This objection is countered by Fabbrini and Mayer repeating that States must always explicitly revoke their consent. As an example of how this should be done, they point to the 2007 <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/doc_07_2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Council</a> &ldquo;abandoning&rdquo; the 2004 Treaty establishing a European Constitution (TEC) that had, as is known, failed to get ratified by France and the Netherlands. Yet can the European Council, which forms part of an autonomous legal organization independent of the Member States, withdraw the consent of Italy (and of all those other Member States that had already <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ratified the TEC</a>)? Under international law, hardly so. But if <a href="https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/gu/2005/04/21/92/so/70/sg/pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Italy&rsquo;s ratification legislation</a> for the 2004 TEC is still &ldquo;easily accessible in the online law books&rdquo; and continues to be unrepealed, does this mean that Italy is still bound by the 2004 TEC; or has the 2007 Lisbon Treaty here taken over &ndash; in the same way as the 1952 EDC was taken over by the 1954 WEU?</p>
<p>In this context, Article 59 VCLT offers &ndash; I think &ndash; a powerful &ldquo;smoking gun&rdquo; in the form of an <em>a fortiori </em>argument. Because as regards international treaties not yet ratified by all parties, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-and-comparative-law-quarterly/article/abs/legal-character-of-article-18-of-the-vienna-convention-on-the-law-of-treaties/C5B1C5E68EF8DE46E348371271A9B589" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 18 VCLT</a> leaves an element of doubt when merely obliging a signatory state, pending the entry into force of the treaty, &ldquo;to refrain from acts which would defeat the object and purpose of a treaty &hellip; provided that such entry into force is not unduly delayed&rdquo;. For even if one overcame the doubt that the provision applied to &ldquo;<a href="https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/vjtl/vol34/iss2/2/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">normative</a>&rdquo; treaties, what is &ldquo;unduly delayed&rdquo;? Is 10 years enough, or 70 or 200 years? Luckily, Article 59(1) VCLT puts an end to that debate as regards the 1952 EDC, because &ldquo;in any case&rdquo; the 1954 WEU replaced the earlier organization since all the parties to the older treaty considered the matter of European defence, the &ldquo;German question&rdquo; as well as NATO collaboration to be now governed by the newer treaty and a simultaneous application of both treaties was legally impossible.</p>
<p>Has the death-through-EU-integration of the WEU in 2011 made a revival of the 1952 EDC possible? Fabbrini and Mayer seem to think so; and they now employ a bootstrapping argument in that context. Fresh talk about the EDC in Italy has itself revived it, as States &ldquo;are the relevant interpreters of whether a treaty is dead or alive&rdquo;. Yet can the &ldquo;recent political developments&rdquo; in Italy revive the EDC Treaty despite, or even against, the &ndash; present day &ndash; wishes of the other signatory states? For Germany, the <a href="https://alcideproject.eu/can-the-revival-of-the-edc-spur-defense-integration-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">authors</a> indeed appear to see this as an advantage: &ldquo;The fact that nothing depends on Germany for the time being &hellip; would also have the advantage that the usual German constitutional objections &hellip; would be irrelevant for the time being.&rdquo; But alas, these objections would undoubtedly be there. The German Constitutional Court has, especially in its <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/EN/2009/06/es20090630_2bve000208en.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2009 Lisbon judgment</a>, insisted on strict limits to EU defence integration (ibid., esp. paras. 249, 254, 316, 384), as &ldquo;military sovereignty&rdquo;, regained after the 1955 Paris Treaties and fortified in a 1956 constitutional amendment (Article 87a GC), is today seen as a fundamental aspect of German &ldquo;statehood&rdquo;.</p>
<p>One can disagree with this sovereigntist stance (as I do), but the EDC&rsquo;s general prohibition of national armies (Article 9 EDC) may raise similar constitutionality questions in the Benelux countries too (<a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=6765082" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">de Waele</a>, 9). ALCIDE&rsquo;s rather limited comparative constitutional focus on the potential validity of the &ldquo;late&rdquo; EDC ratifications by Italy and France, therefore, skips over an important legal problem that was already alluded to in my earlier post. Indeed: even if one were to believe that Germany and the Benelux countries were still bound by their respective ratifications under<em> international law</em>, their original consent might have become illegal &ndash; in the last 70 years &ndash; under their respective <em>national</em> constitutional laws (with the consequence that their governments would be under a domestic obligation to un-ratify). In the German case, for example, the 1954 amendment that had made EDC accession constitutionally possible via a newly inserted <a href="https://www.verfassungen.de/gg/gg-a142a.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 142a GC</a> was itself repealed in 1968. And <em>quare</em>: did the national ratification laws for the 1954 WEU Treaty and the 2007 Lisbon Treaty not already implicitly repeal, under national law, the earlier 1952 EDC ratifications?</p>
<h2>More European Law: The EDC Violates Primary and Secondary Law</h2>
<p>Is the EDC incompatible with EU law today? My original post here concentrated on the institutional aspects of this question &ndash; mainly arguing that the supranational character of the EDC could not be inserted into the Union&rsquo;s intergovernmental Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).</p>
<p>In response, Fabbrini and Mayer point to several CFSP-related <em>inter-se</em> agreements (Aachen, Lancaster, Strasbourg). But none of these treaties establishes a &ldquo;supranational&rdquo; authority or employs the European Court of Justice! The <a href="https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/resource/blob/2192638/ccd486958222bd5a490d42c57dd7ed03/treaty-of-aachen-data.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Aachen Treaty</a>, for example, allows France and Germany to &ldquo;hold regular consultations at all levels prior to major European meetings&rdquo; (Article 2) and has the aim to &ldquo;increasingly converge their security and defence objectives and strategies&rdquo; (Article 4(1)). Yet the &ldquo;Franco-German Defence and Security Council&rdquo;, created for that purpose, is a purely intergovernmental body (Article 4(4)); and the same purely intergovernmental features characterise the other two CFSP-related agreements mentioned by the authors. The example of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_establishing_the_European_Stability_Mechanism" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ESM Treaty</a> &ndash; concluded within the scope of the supranational TFEU &ndash; is, in this context, highly misplaced because the &ldquo;borrowing&rdquo; of supranational institutions can constitutionally be done, once the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:62012CJ0370" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Pringle</em></a> criteria are fulfilled, in those parts of the EU Treaties that are themselves supranational. Yet, unlike what especially Fabbrini claims, this logic cannot &ldquo;a fortiori&rdquo; be extended to the CFSP, where Article 24 TEU expressly limits the role of the supranational institutions.</p>
<p>But let us also look more closely at the <em>substantive</em> incompatibilities of the EDC Treaty with EU law. On the level of EU primary law, the Union&rsquo;s Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is today based on the assumption that national armies survive. For example: Articles 42 and 46 TEU as well as the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/teu_2008/pro_10/oj/eng" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Protocol on Permanent Structured Cooperation</a> essentially ask each Member State &ldquo;to develop <em>its</em> defence capacities through the development of its <em>national</em> contributions and participation&rdquo; (ibid., Article 1(a), emphasis added); and a revived EDC that generally abolished national armies would surely not be compatible with that CSDP feature. &nbsp;This does not necessarily mean that there cannot be a proper European standing army under the current CSDP. While controversial (<a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Europ%C3%A4isierte_Verteidigung/ZYh0EQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">von Achenbach</a>, 240), Article 42(1) TEU might here offer a textual base that could, despite a later qualification, be used to justify the creation of such a supranational force. Yet to comply with the present CSDP arrangements, as well as <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/teu_2012/art_4/oj/eng" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 4(2) TEU</a>, this European army could never be an &ldquo;exclusive&rdquo; EDC-like army; it would have to be a &ldquo;complementary&rdquo; Union force in the way it has been suggested by <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/why-its-time-reconsider-european-army" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">some</a>.</p>
<p>On the level of EU secondary law, finally, a revived EDC would also cause major substantive incompatibilities. For in the last decade in particular, the Union has found the courage to increasingly use its <a href="https://kluwerlawonline.com/journalarticle/Common+Market+Law+Review/62.6%20%5bpre-publication%5d/COLA2025100" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">supranational competences</a> (internal market, industrial policy, technology development) to enter into defence territory; and because <em>inter-se</em> agreements between the Member States are &ndash; just like national law &ndash; subject to the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/foreign-affairs-and-the-eu-constitution/european-law-and-member-state-agreements/2E451F925CAD6E52703BB3D89EA769C6" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">primacy of all EU law</a>, including secondary law, these Union legislative acts would have to be repealed before the EDC could come into force. Take, for example, <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02009L0081-20260101" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Directive 2009/81</a> on the coordination of procedures for the award of certain works contracts, supply contracts and service contracts by contracting authorities or entities in the fields of defence and security; or, the more recent <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/2418/oj/eng" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Regulation 2023/2418</a> on establishing an instrument for the reinforcement of the European defence industry through common procurement (EDIRPA). Both Union laws seem clearly incompatible with Article 101-111 EDC, which are based on a completely different &ndash; centralised &ndash; procurement approach.</p>
<h2>More European Politics: Autonomy and Democracy as a Minimum</h2>
<p>For those favouring (external) strategic autonomy for the Union and (internal) democratic control of the Union, the two cardinal sins of the 1952 EDC were its NATO-dependency and its supranational-executive character. As regards the former, Article 2 EDC firmly committed it to operate &ldquo;within the framework of the North Atlantic Treaty&rdquo; with Article 18 EDC subjecting it, especially in wartime, to NATO control. As regards democracy (or lack thereof), the EDC had, by contrast, adopted the European Coal and Steel Community&rsquo;s technocratic format, with both Communities giving virtually no significant role to the European Parliament (<a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Europ%C3%A4ische_Verteidigung/vtd-EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scheffel</a>, 79). That striking lack of democratic legitimacy was immediately perceived as a major flaw to be addressed in the future (Article 38 EDC).</p>
<p>Should today&rsquo;s European defence integration not do better than <em>that</em>? In the last decade, the Union has been pushing hard &ndash; very hard &ndash; to regain some <a href="https://kluwerlawonline.com/journalarticle/Common+Market+Law+Review/60.3/COLA2023048" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">external autonomy</a> from third States, especially under the TFEU. Within the intergovernmental CSDP, matters have been less successful, with three institutional ideas currently being discussed. The first idea, championed by EU Commissioner Kubilius under the banner of &ldquo;<a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/speech_26_841" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a genuine European Defence Union</a>&rdquo;, appears to favour a &ldquo;<a href="https://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/commentary/european-security-council-between-strategic-need-and-institutional" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Western European Union 2.0</a>&rdquo; based on an intergovernmental treaty and centred around a &ldquo;<a href="https://andriuskubilius.lt/en/on-europeanization-of-european-conventional-defence/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Security Council</a>&rdquo;. The second idea proposes a &ldquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/european-defence-union-intergovernmental/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">PESCO 2.0</a>&rdquo; that reactivates a Permanent Structured Cooperation with much fewer Member States participating than those that currently do (26 out of 27). Finally, there is the idea of a &ldquo;real&rdquo; supranational European Defence Union, proposed by the European Parliament and already analysed <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/towards-a-european-defence-union/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>.</p>
<p>Each of these three options tries to develop and enhance today&rsquo;s CSDP organically. Yet only the second option allows for its activation through a qualified majority decision by the Council (Article 46 (2) TEU), whilst it returns to unanimity voting for all participating Member States subsequently (Article 46 (6) TEU). Unanimity among the participating states would, presumably, also apply to Kubilius&rsquo; intergovernmental proposal &ndash; though clear institutional contours have yet to emerge out of his 2026 <a href="https://andriuskubilius.lt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">publicity blitz</a>. The European Parliament&rsquo;s proposal alone would solve that decision-making problem, albeit it would require prior EU Treaty amendment. The Parliament has, therefore, suggested the following amendment to Article 42 TEU (with the suggested textual changes in bold):</p>
<blockquote><p>&ldquo;3. <strong>The Union shall establish a Defence Union</strong> with civilian and military capabilities for the implementation of the common security and defence policy. <strong>That Defence Union shall include military units, including a permanent rapid deployment capacity, under the operational command of the Union. Member States may provide additional capabilities</strong>. (&hellip;)</p>
<p>4. Decisions relating to the common security and defence policy shall be adopted by the Council acting <strong>by a qualified majority </strong>on a proposal from the Union Secretary for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy or an initiative from a Member State<strong>, and after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament</strong>. The<strong> Union Secretary for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy</strong> may propose the use of both national resources and Union instruments, together with the Commission where appropriate.&rdquo;</p></blockquote>
<p>Like the EDC, the EDU would have clear supranational advantages over WEU 1.0 and WEU 2.0. But unlike the EDC, it would be under the operational command of the Union &ndash; not NATO; with majority decisions being taken by the two chambers of the EU legislature instead of a supranational executive (the &ldquo;Commissariat&rdquo;). The proposed EDU also acknowledges the continued ability of the Member States to have national armies; and the sharing of military &ldquo;sovereignty&rdquo;, an anomaly in the Weberian nation state, would here be another expression of the <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/from-dual-to-cooperative-federalism-9780199664948?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp;" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cooperative federalism</a> that is already a constitutional hallmark of the Union. In contrast to the radical federalism of the EDC, the EDU thus adopts a much more &ldquo;pragmatic&rdquo; approach that is &ndash; nonetheless &ndash; not unprincipled in its choice in favour of a &ldquo;parliamentary&rdquo; Union force that is also strategically autonomous from the United States.</p>
<p>Parliament&rsquo;s EDU will, however, unlike the WEU 2.0 or PESCO 2.0 proposals, require Treaty amendment; and differentiated defence integration may, thus, ultimately still represent the Union&rsquo;s immediate future. But does this make the EDU a red herring when compared to the idea of reviving the 1952 EDC? No. The EDC is dead; and even if it were not dead, it would be illegal under the existing EU Treaties (and thus require their amendment to become legal); and even if it were not illegal under the EU Treaties, it would be unsuitable in light of what European defence integration should strive for in 2026, namely: external autonomy and internal democracy.</p>
<p>Why should the Member States agree to a supranational EDU? Because they should remember, as after the Second World War (or after the fall of Eastern European communism), that the best way to &ldquo;<a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-European-Rescue-of-the-Nation-State/Milward/p/book/9780415216296" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rescue</a>&rdquo; themselves is within a stronger European Union.&nbsp;Indeed, the insight of a great French comparativist still holds true today: &ldquo;[i]f a republic is small, it is destroyed by a foreign force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice&rdquo; (<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/gb/universitypress/subjects/politics-international-relations/texts-political-thought/montesquieu-spirit-laws" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Montesquieu</a>, 131); and to overcome this geopolitical dilemma, smaller states should form a &ldquo;federal republic&rdquo; in which internal virtue is combined with external force. That external force needs, today, no longer be an exclusive Union force to protect Europe from a remilitarised Germany. Yet the Union of 2026 must learn to stand on its own feet; and it must stand on them in the present &ndash; not the past. For the past is a time that cannot be revived outside one&rsquo;s imagination &ndash; even if one searched very hard.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/again-the-european-defence-community-is-dead/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Again, the European Defence Community Is Dead, Let It Rest in Peace</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-02T06:58:28+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Robert Schütze</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-02T06:58:28+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu law"/>

	<category term="europa"/>

	<category term="european defence community"/>

	<category term="european defence union"/>

	<category term="mpi-csl-beitrag"/>

	<category term="nato"/>

	<category term="vienna convention on the law of treaties"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-01:/289321</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/06/reflections-on-skowroneks-adaptability.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Reflections on Skowronek’s “The Adaptability Paradox”</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>I&rsquo;m sorry I didn&rsquo;t participate in
the symposium on Stephen Skowronek&rsquo;s challenging new book, &ldquo;The Ad...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><span>I&rsquo;m sorry I didn&rsquo;t participate in
the symposium on Stephen Skowronek&rsquo;s challenging new book, &ldquo;The Adaptability
Paradox.&rdquo;</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Skowronek probes in detail
whether the Constitution&rsquo;s commitments, especially to separation of powers and
federalism, are maladapted to the democratized world created by the &ldquo;rights
revolution&rdquo; of the 1960s.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>As he says,
&ldquo;At the center of the analysis is a trade-off between wide political inclusion
and the structural integrity of the Constitution.&rdquo; (TAP, vii-ix)</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>This trade-off is expressed by the
&ldquo;adaptability paradox.&rdquo;</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Because I lack
Skowronek&rsquo;s concise and mannered means of expression, I&rsquo;ll try to state the
paradox in my own words.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>The idea is
that voiding the undemocratic parts of the Constitution in service of
democratic principles yielded a new kind of inclusive regime which had no
precedent in American history.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Further,
the ultimate consistency of this regime with the parts of the Constitution that
remained after this makeover is, at the least, untested and at the most, extremely
problematic.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>This problematic
inconsistency has produced increasing dysfunction and, indeed, instances of outright
derangement in how each branch of government operates.</span></p>

<p><span>After I read the book, I remarked
to my fellow bloggers that I could hardly disagree with this diagnosis, at
least in its outlines, because it resembles in broad outline the kind of
argument I&rsquo;ve been making off and on since my 1996 book </span><i>American
Constitutionalism: From Theory to Politics</i><span>.</span><span>&nbsp;
</span><span>I&rsquo;ll note the similarities.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>In
retrospect, in my 1996 book I was probably arguing two distinct theses at the
same time.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>One was a &ldquo;mismatch&rdquo; theory &ndash;
the idea that the activist state represented by the New Deal was in
considerable tension with the unamended Constitution.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>The other was a &ldquo;democratization&rdquo; theory
(although I did not use that term) &ndash; that our experience since the 1960s shows
there is a problem operating the Constitution amid a democratic politics
unknown to prior American history.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>The
latter thesis is of course closer to Skowronek&rsquo;s argument.</span></p>

<p><span>I treated these theses as showing
the constitutional system in a continual crisis since the 1960s.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>The idea that you could have a crisis that,
in effect, never ends has been questioned by some scholars and I probably
should have found another way to describe what I was observing.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>But I viewed the lack of Article V amendment
as imposing a hard limit on just how far the Constitution could adapt.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>In other words, adaptation through &ldquo;informal&rdquo;
means has never struck me as a fully effective substitute for formal
change.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>This is also what Skowronek
seems to believe.</span></p>

<p><span>The particular spin I put on the
democratization thesis was that the full implications of democratization were
concealed by the political consensus behind the Cold War even through the
1960s.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>I put the theses together as
follows: &ldquo;In the 1960s the politicization of civil society increased rapidly,
the legal restrictions on the electorate were for the most part abolished, and
the United States experienced a full-fledged national democratic politics for
the first time in its history. . . .The politicization of civil society and the
democratization of the state had enormously expanded the scope of the national
policy agenda.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>The range of interests
the national state now had to take into account approximated much more closely
the range of interests in society.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>But
there had been no fundamental change in the ability of the national state
(read: Constitution) to wield public authority and govern these contending
interests.&rdquo;</span></p>

<p><span>In my 2015 book </span><i>Broken Trust</i><span>
I used studies by John Hibbing and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse to extend the
argument that the democratization of American government led to constitutional
problems.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Specifically, democratization
produced a roiling, contentious and conflictual politics that was deeply at
odds with how Americans think politics and government should work.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Accordingly, I argued, trust in government
was permanently dented.</span></p><p><span>Compared to the accounts I offered
in my prior work, Skowronek is far more acute and detailed on the impacts of
democratization on Congress, the Supreme Court, and the presidency.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>As one might expect, his account of the disastrous
consequences for our constitutional order of the unitary executive theory is
particularly well done and should be required reading in the nation&rsquo;s law
schools.</span></p>

<p><span><p>&nbsp;</p></span><span>While I admire Skowronek&rsquo;s ability
to illuminate the current dysfunction of our system of separation of powers,
what he has to say, even as a descriptive-explanatory matter, about the
relationship of federalism to the democratization of American politics is hard
for many legal academics to hear.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>If I
read him correctly, Skowronek is saying that by shoving federalism concerns to
one side in measures like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of
1965, we as a polity bought ourselves endless constitutional trouble.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>And our current difficulties with separation
of powers and the shunting aside of federalism concerns are related.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>That is, the steady opponents of these
measures, particularly although not exclusively in the South, turned to
strategies that would make the presidency and eventually the Supreme Court itself
more receptive to their point of view.</span><span>&nbsp;
</span><span>Indeed, the process that led to the recent decision in </span><i>Louisiana v.
Callais</i><span> is arguably an example of what Skowronek is talking about.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Journalists like to describe the VRA as
originating solely in 1965, when it is in fact the product of three distinct
periods &ndash; 1965, the change in the status of section 5 of the VRA after the </span><i>Allen</i><span>
decision in 1969, and the 1982 amendments.</span><span>&nbsp;
</span><span>Lawyers in the Reagan administration like John Roberts and Sam Alito as
well as the legal conservatives generally were never reconciled to the last set
of changes, with consequences we can all now perceive.</span><span>&nbsp; </span><span>Legal scholars will have their reservations,
but they need to reckon with Skowronek&rsquo;s many insights.</span></p>

<p><p>&nbsp;</p></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-01T21:23:17+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (Stephen Griffin)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-06-01T21:23:17+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-01:/289312</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/intercultural-hearing-amazon/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">“Selvar” the Courts</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n Sinangoe Community, 20th of February of 2026, intercultural legal hearing. Credits: Nixon...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-1024x683.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-150x100.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-200x133.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-300x200.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-400x267.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-600x400.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-800x533.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-1024x683.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1.jpg 1155w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-150x100.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-200x133.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-300x200.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-400x267.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-600x400.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-800x533.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1-1024x683.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-1.jpg 1155w" sizes="(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n Sinangoe Community, 20th of February of 2026, intercultural legal hearing. Credits: Nixon Andy</p>
<p>The scent of palo santo (<em>Bursera graveolens</em>) still lingered in the air on February 20, 2026, in the A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n community of Sinangoe, in the Ecuadorian Amazon. That day, three judges from the Provincial Court of Sucumb&iacute;os arrived in the territory to hold an intercultural dialogue hearing as part of a protective action filed by the community to demand respect for their ancestral property rights and the allocation of&nbsp;<a href="https://arcg.is/0vjvCm0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">63,755 hectares of ancestral land.</a></p>
<p>It was not only about the physical territory, but also about memories, ancestral practices, the transmission of ancestral knowledge, and A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n ways of &ldquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/mingas-rights-of-nature/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">heartfelt thinking</a>&rdquo; the world that sustain the territory and collective life.</p>
<p>This hearing reveals something deeper than a mere legal proceeding: when the courts move into Indigenous territory, the law shifts its setting and its conditions of production. In this space, not only judges and lawyers are involved, but also community authorities, ritual practices, and plants like the yoco&nbsp;(<em>Paullinia yoco</em>).</p>
<h2>Applying Law from a Different Perspective</h2>
<p>Intercultural hearings held on-site allow the courts to be &ldquo;<em>selvadas</em>,&rdquo; or forested, that is, to open the judicial process to the material realities, textualities, relationships, and authorities that co-produce and co-compose law in Amazonian Indigenous contexts. In other words, the act of &ldquo;<em>selvar&rdquo;</em>&nbsp;involves applying the law from the perspective of the forest itself, with the participation of all the entities that comprise it and their own legal systems. Only in this on-site encounter can the tensions and the possibilities for dialogue between state law and Indigenous legal systems become more clearly visible.</p>
<p>In Ecuador, this possibility has a constitutional basis.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.oas.org/juridico/pdfs/mesicic4_ecu_const.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The 2008 Constitution</a>&nbsp;recognizes the country as a plurinational and intercultural state (art. 1). However, in judicial practice, tensions persist between state law and the legal systems of Indigenous Peoples and Nations.</p>
<p>The hearing in Sinangoe offers a window into how these systems can engage in dialogue when justice is transferred to the territory. On February 20, the day began at 4:00 a.m. with the taking of the yoco plant, a practice that connects with the forest, the spirits, and the memory of the elders. The yoco is not just a plant, but a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13642987.2024.2362837" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">plant authority that participates in co-governance.</a></p>
<p>During the hearing, the A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n traditional authorities performed a harmonization ceremony with ritual elements and the participation of the community, including children, integrating their own practices into the judicial process. Woven baskets filled with chonta palm (<em>Bactris gasipaes</em>) and achiote (<em>Bixa orellana</em>) were placed in the center of the hearing. We shared stinging nettles (<em>Urtica dioica</em>), and burned palo santo to harmonize the spirit. Then&nbsp;<em><a href="https://es.mongabay.com/2026/02/ecuador-guardia-indigena-infantil-amazonia-aprender-defenderla/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chipiri Tsampi&rsquo;ma kuirasunde&rsquo;khu</a>&nbsp;</em>(a group of children, young guardians of the forest) entered, dressed in traditional A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n clothing, singing to the rhythm of the drums: <em>Who are we? What do we defend? Strength, strength. Guard, guard. The cry of the forest, uuuu.</em></p>
<h2>A Community That Has Already Changed the Jurisprudence</h2>
<p>The A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n community of Sinangoe belongs to an Amazonian Nation whose ancestral territory was&nbsp;<a href="https://amazonfrontlines.org/es/chronicles/ecuador-ai-cofan-sinangoe-adjudicacion-territorio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">declared part of the Cayambe-Coca National Park in 1970</a> without prior consultation. In 2018, the community achieved a historic victory by successfully annulling mining concessions granted without their consent. Subsequently, the Constitutional Court of Ecuador consolidated this case in ruling 273-19-JP/22, establishing important standards regarding prior consultation, territory, and the Rights of Nature. The Court determined that prior, free, and informed consent is mandatory even when extractive activities are located outside the communities&rsquo; territory but may affect them.</p>
<p>In November 2021, judges of the Constitutional Court held an&nbsp;<a href="https://gk.city/2021/11/15/audiencia-corte-constitucional-nacionalidad-cofan-sinangoe/?utm_source=" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">intercultural Amazonian hearing</a>&nbsp;on the community&rsquo;s territory. More than&nbsp;<a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2021/11/court-convenes-historic-hearing-in-indigenous-territory-on-land-consent-issue/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">300 leaders of Indigenous Peoples and Nations</a>&nbsp;participated in a process that sought a national precedent on free, prior, and informed consent linked to self-determination and the Rights of Nature. It was a true <a href="https://www.e-publicacoes.uerj.br/revistaceaju/article/view/94532" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">legal <em>minga</em></a><em>,</em> an act of listening that opened a historic opportunity to interpret rights on-site.</p>
<p>Despite these precedents, formal recognition of the ancestral territory remains pending. For this reason, the community filed a new constitutional action to demand the adjudication of its territory.</p>
<h2>The Territorial Map as a Source of Own Indigenous Law</h2>
<p>One of the fundamental issues discussed at the hearing on February 20, 2026, was who has the authority to determine the dimensions of the community&rsquo;s territory and under what conditions.</p>
<p>Between 2018 and 2021, <em>Kuirasunde&rsquo;khu</em> (Indigenous guard) carried out a territorial mapping process. They walked through the rainforest to record rivers, sacred sites, and memories passed down by elders. The result was a map with nearly 5,000 points documenting the ancestral territory.</p>
<p>But for the community, this map is not simply a technical instrument: it is a collective legal act. The rivers, the sites of <em>yag&eacute;</em> (<em>Banisteriopsis caapi</em>) ceremonies, the stories of grandparents, and the places inhabited by spiritual beings are all part of this map: slopes, mountains, sacred places, and beings like Atiambi a&rsquo;i, Kukuya, Vajos, and Kuankuas.</p>
<p>In this sense, mapping is not merely describing the territory, but rather creating legal rights. In the Amazon, borders have historically been fluid, and the movement of rivers and wildlife is an integral part of this living territory. Consequently, territorial mapping must be understood from an ecosystemic and intercultural perspective, as part of the communities&rsquo; own legal rights and Law, and fundamental for the formalization and granting of property titles.</p>
<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-150x95.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-200x127.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-300x190.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-320x202.jpg 320w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-400x253.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-600x380.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-800x506.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-1024x648.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-1200x759.jpg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2.jpg 1304w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-150x95.jpg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-200x127.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-300x190.jpg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-320x202.jpg 320w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-400x253.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-600x380.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-800x506.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-1024x648.jpg 1024w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2-1200x759.jpg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/bild-2.jpg 1304w" sizes="(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n Community of Sinangoe, February 20, 2026, Holger Quenam&aacute; Coordinator Kuirasunde&rsquo;khu explaining the territorial mapping. Credits: Nixon Andy</p>
<p>The jurisprudence of the&nbsp;<a href="https://elaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/CASO-PUEBLO-INDIGENA-UWA-Y-SUS-MIEMBROS-VS.-COLOMBIA_esp-1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Inter-American Court</a>&nbsp;has recognized that the ancestral possession of Indigenous Peoples, who existed before the creation of nation-states, constitutes a title of full ownership, and what corresponds to the States is its formalization and registration.</p>
<p>From an anthropological perspective, mapping allows us to show how Indigenous Peoples conceptualize territory within their&nbsp;<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19428200.2017.1291014" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cosmologies</a>. In Sinangoe, mapping expresses a relational understanding where humans, animals, plants, rivers, mountains, and spirits are all part of a living territory. After all, &ldquo;<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19428200.2017.1291014" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">there are no straight lines in nature</a>.&rdquo; The territory is also recognized through sounds: bird songs, the buzzing of insects, the flow of rivers, and even the presence of spirits. It is a sensory and relational mapping that cannot be interpreted using the same parameters as&nbsp;<a href="https://geografiacriticaecuador.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/CartillaDefensaTerritorio-1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">conventional state cartography.</a></p>
<p>As Australian Indigenous jurist&nbsp;<a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203844380/land-source-law-black" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Christine Black</a>&nbsp;has pointed out, Indigenous law is a living jurisprudence expressed through song, ceremony, storytelling, dance, and the relationship with the land. The law emerges from the territory. Within this framework, the taking of yoco, nettle, face painting, and the voice of Kuirasunde&rsquo;khu (Indigenous guard), along with territorial mapping, constitute the expression of this living jurisprudence.</p>
<h2>Setting Jurisprudence from the Heart A&rsquo;I Cof&aacute;n</h2>
<p>In the Amazonian intercultural hearing, listening to and &ldquo;heartfelt thinking&rdquo;, the law continues to establish living jurisprudence, grounded in what <a href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/62370" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">some have called</a> a &ldquo;constituent power of nature.&rdquo; The very performance of the hearing transforms what counts as evidence and who can speak. In this space, entities from the plant world also participate. The evidence was not limited to the materiality of the paper: the map was accompanied by plants present, by lines drawn on bodies, and by an illustration of a <a href="https://amazonfrontlines.org/chronicles/the-tree-of-fish-indigenous-myth-from-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tree and fish</a> that embodies the creation myth of the Amazon basin.</p>
<p>When intercultural hearings take place in a specific territory, another form of horizontality emerges. What is often questioned in other courts <span lang="DE">&ndash; </span>who has expertise or <a href="https://www.iisj.net/es/publicaciones/multicultural-jurisprudence-comparative-perspectives-cultural-defense" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">what evidence is valid</a>&nbsp;<span lang="DE">&ndash;</span>&nbsp;takes on a different dimension here.</p>
<p>Children also participated (<em>Chipiri Tsampima Kuirasundekhu</em>). They not only spoke, but also sang about the ancestral territory their grandparents had walked. Then they presented the judges with a map they had painted themselves: the rivers where they bathe and play, the paths they have traveled, and the stories they have heard from their elders.</p>
<p>Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and Nations such as the Siekopai, Waorani, and Shipibo-Conibo of Peru, along with various&nbsp;<em>amici curiae</em>, supported the case through interventions and expert opinions. However, representatives from the Ministry of Environment and Energy participated virtually, refusing to hold an intercultural dialogue on-site. As one community member pointed out, this decision was perceived as disrespectful: &ldquo;When you talk about the territory, you have to come to the territory, walk through the forest, listen to the river, and look the community in the eye.&rdquo; As another community member expressed, &ldquo;Are they afraid of the yoco or the nettle?&rdquo; In this sense, they refused to &ldquo;<em>selvar</em>&rdquo; the law, failing to uphold the constitutional obligation of intercultural dialogue.</p>
<p>What is at stake is not just a territorial delimitation, but self-determination, the legal security of ancestral territory and the exercise of one&rsquo;s own rights in the face of extractive threats.</p>
<p>While awaiting the court&rsquo;s decision, the A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n community of Sinangoe continued to walk their territory, listened to the voices of the rivers and teaching children to care for the rainforest. Because there is something that cannot be learned in a courtroom: the land is not a piece of paper; the land is spirit, it is home, and it is life. And as long as the forest lives, the A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n community of Sinangoe will stand firm, caring for and defending life and territory. May more legal professionals be inspired to bring the forest into the courts.</p>
<p>The Provincial Court of Sucumb&iacute;os ruled on the 28th of May in favour of the A&rsquo;i Cof&aacute;n community of Sinangoe to get their land titles in 30 days. The act of mapping was mentioned as one of the key elements in favour of a positive ruling as an &ldquo;ethnographic tool capable of showing how Indigenous Peoples conceptualize the place inside of their cultural systems and cosmologies&rdquo;.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/intercultural-hearing-amazon/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&ldquo;Selvar&rdquo; the Courts</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-01T16:30:36+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Wider Guaramag Umenda</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-01T16:30:36+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="amazon"/>

	<category term="ecuador"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="indigenes volk"/>

	<category term="indigenous peoples"/>

	<category term="indigenous rights"/>

	<category term="inter-american court of human rights"/>

	<category term="inter-american human rights system"/>

	<category term="rights of nature"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-01:/289313</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-betriebsbegriff/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Mitbestimmung in der Ortlosigkeit</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Der Betriebsbegriff des Betriebsverfassungsgesetzes (BetrVG) steht unter Druck. Das zeigen exemplari...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Der Betriebsbegriff des Betriebsverfassungsgesetzes (BetrVG) steht unter Druck. Das zeigen exemplarisch drei Beschl&uuml;sse des BAG aus dem Januar und die Diskussionsthemen der <a href="https://djt.de/75-djt/fachprogramm/arbeitsrecht/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">arbeitsrechtlichen Abteilung des 75. Deutschen Juristentags (DJT)</a> im September. Dort wird man danach fragen, ob das BetrVG ein Update braucht, und nicht zuletzt diskutieren, &bdquo;ob die Ankn&uuml;pfung der grundlegenden Repr&auml;sentationseinheit der Arbeitnehmer an den Betrieb noch sachgerecht ist und welche Alternativen es g&auml;be&ldquo;. Dass der Betrieb als zentraler Grundbegriff des BetrVG unter Druck steht, ist ein offenes Geheimnis. Die Betriebsverfassung ist auf lineare F&uuml;hrungsstrukturen ausgerichtet und passt deshalb nur eingeschr&auml;nkt zu neuen Arbeitsformen, die h&auml;ufig auch eine ver&auml;nderte Unternehmensorganisation nach sich ziehen. In der Plattformwirtschaft, aber auch dar&uuml;ber hinaus, f&uuml;hrt das zu Problemen, &uuml;berhaupt betriebliche Mitbestimmung zu organisieren.</p>
<p>Trotz dieser Schwierigkeiten tendiert die Diskussion bisher dazu, den grundlegenden Betriebsbegriff unangetastet zu lassen und auf punktuelle Ver&auml;nderungen in dessen Umfeld zu setzen. Dies ist verst&auml;ndlich, weil die Praxis auf rasche Abhilfe dr&auml;ngt. Auf Dauer wird das aber nicht reichen. Die aktuellen Probleme legen n&auml;mlich Strukturdefizite offen, die bis an die Anf&auml;nge der Betriebsverfassung zur&uuml;ckreichen. Deshalb sollte neben die kurzfristige Reformperspektive bereits jetzt eine langfristige treten. Auf den Pr&uuml;fstand geh&ouml;rt dabei auch die bisherige Struktur, in der s&auml;mtliche Mitbestimmungsrechte ungeachtet ihrer Vielgestaltigkeit auf den Betrieb als einheitliche Repr&auml;sentationseinheit bezogen sind. Die Frage nach den richtigen Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten betrifft nicht nur die Gesetzestechnik, sondern sie ber&uuml;hrt die elementarsten Grundlagen der Betriebsverfassung: ihren Zweck und die Legitimation der Betriebsparteien.</p>
<h2>Betriebe und Betriebsteile in der plattformbasierten Lieferwirtschaft</h2>
<p>Ein anschauliches Beispiel f&uuml;r die aktuellen Schwierigkeiten mit dem Betriebsbegriff bieten die drei Beschl&uuml;sse des BAG vom 28.&nbsp;Januar 2026, zu denen bislang nur eine <a href="https://www.bundesarbeitsgericht.de/presse/anfechtung-einer-betriebsratswahl-betriebsteil/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pressemitteilung</a> vorliegt. Gegenstand war der Streit um die Wirksamkeit von Betriebsratswahlen an mehreren Standorten eines bekannten Unternehmens der plattformbasierten Essenslieferbranche. Konkret ging es um &bdquo;Remote Cities&ldquo;, in denen lediglich Lieferpersonal t&auml;tig ist, wo aber vor Ort keinerlei Leitungsfunktionen ausge&uuml;bt werden. Die Arbeitgeberin hat die Wahlen angefochten, und zwar mit dem Argument, dass in den &bdquo;Remote Cities&ldquo; weder Betriebe noch selbst&auml;ndige Betriebsteile best&uuml;nden und die Arbeitnehmer deshalb auch keinen eigenen Betriebsrat w&auml;hlen k&ouml;nnten.</p>
<p>Was ein Betrieb ist, definiert das BetrVG nicht. Nach gefestigter Rechtsprechung kommt es im Kern darauf an, wo die Arbeitgeberin ihre wesentlichen Leitungsfunktionen &ndash; insbesondere bei personellen und sozialen Fragen &ndash; tats&auml;chlich aus&uuml;bt. Das war in den &bdquo;Remote Cities&ldquo; nicht der Fall. Die Arbeitnehmer k&ouml;nnen nach &sect;&nbsp;4 Abs.&nbsp;1 S.&nbsp;1 Nr.&nbsp;1 BetrVG auch in Betriebsteilen einen Betriebsrat w&auml;hlen, wenn die Betriebsteile r&auml;umlich weit vom Hauptbetrieb entfernt sind. Die Rechtsprechung verlangt allerdings auch insoweit ein &bdquo;Mindestma&szlig; an organisatorischer Selbstst&auml;ndigkeit&ldquo; dieser Betriebsteile. F&uuml;r die &bdquo;Remote Cities&ldquo; hat der Siebte Senat des BAG dies abgelehnt: Die Zusammenfassung zu einem Liefergebiet mit eigenem Dienstplan gen&uuml;ge nicht, ebenso wenig die &bdquo;Interessengemeinschaft&ldquo; der an einem Standort besch&auml;ftigten Auslieferungsfahrer.</p>
<p>Selbstverst&auml;ndlich ist dieses Ergebnis allerdings nicht. F&uuml;r einiges Aufsehen hat eine erstinstanzliche Entscheidung des <a href="https://nrwe.justiz.nrw.de/arbgs/koeln/arbg_aachen/j2024/2_BV_56_23_Beschluss_20240423.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ArbG Aachen</a> gesorgt, in der es die Betriebswahl in einem der Liefergebiete f&uuml;r wirksam erkl&auml;rt hat. Zwar bestehe in den Remote Cities kein Betrieb im Sinne des &sect;&nbsp;1 BetrVG, wohl aber ein qualifizierter Betriebsteil nach &sect;&nbsp;4 Abs.&nbsp;1 S.&nbsp;1 BetrVG. Was das erforderliche Mindestma&szlig; an organisatorischer Selbst&auml;ndigkeit betrifft, m&uuml;sse es in der digitalisierten Arbeitswelt ausreichen, wenn die Personalsteuerung von irgendeinem Ort aus per App stattfindet. Selbst wenn man am leitungsfixierten Betriebsbegriff festh&auml;lt, hat das ArbG Aachen eine berechtigte Frage gestellt: Ist es wirklich zwingend, bei einer derart ortlosen Unternehmensorganisation auf den Sitz der Entscheidungstr&auml;ger abzustellen?</p>
<p>Diese Frage ist von gro&szlig;er Bedeutung f&uuml;r Initiativen zur Gr&uuml;ndung eines Betriebsrats. F&uuml;r deren Effektivit&auml;t ist es keineswegs gleichg&uuml;ltig, in welchen Einheiten gew&auml;hlt werden kann. Unternehmensstrukturen k&ouml;nnen sich, wie etwa die Situation im Einzelhandel zeigt, als Hemmnis f&uuml;r die Bildung von Betriebsr&auml;ten erweisen. Dort sorgt die Parzellierung in kleine Filialen mit eigener Leitung f&uuml;r wei&szlig;e Flecken auf der Landkarte der Mitbestimmung. Aber auch die standort&uuml;bergreifende Mobilisierung kann schwierig sein, wie gerade die Plattformwirtschaft zeigt. Hier liegt eine generelle Herausforderung darin, dass die Besch&auml;ftigten, im Wesentlichen gesteuert durch Smartphone-Apps, unabh&auml;ngig voneinander t&auml;tig sind. Die Probleme reichen aber dar&uuml;ber hinaus: Die betriebliche Mitbestimmung hat in den letzten Jahren dramatisch <a href="https://iab.de/daten/daten-zur-tarifbindung-und-betrieblichen-interessenvertetung/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an Boden verloren</a>, vor allem in kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen.</p>
<h2>Punktuelle Anpassungen im Umfeld des Betriebsbegriffs&hellip;</h2>
<p>In der bisherigen Diskussion dominieren Vorschl&auml;ge, die im Regelungsumfeld des Betriebsbegriffs ansetzen. Dieser Linie folgt auch Claudia Schubert in ihrem k&uuml;rzlich ver&ouml;ffentlichten <a href="https://www.inlibra.com/de/document/view/detail/uuid/d8b9b3d0-7f3b-322e-ba72-f2e2c7b1e4d7" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">DJT-Gutachten</a> (S.&nbsp;B33&nbsp;f.): F&uuml;r die Betriebsratsf&auml;higkeit eines selbstst&auml;ndigen Betriebsteils (&sect;&nbsp;4 Abs.&nbsp;1 S.&nbsp;1 BetrVG) soll die &ouml;rtliche Organisation von Leitungsmacht nicht mehr ma&szlig;geblich sein. Vielmehr soll es auf eine &bdquo;wertende Entscheidung&ldquo; ankommen, wie unabh&auml;ngig der Betriebsteil vom Hauptbetrieb ist. Aber warum soll gerade die Unabh&auml;ngigkeit das entscheidende Kriterium sein? Und woran misst man sie? Die so entstehende Rechtsunsicherheit l&auml;sst sich auch nicht allein dadurch ausgleichen, dass man, wie Schubert vorschl&auml;gt, die Belegschaft des selbstst&auml;ndigen Betriebsteils beim Hauptbetrieb mitw&auml;hlen l&auml;sst, solange sie f&uuml;r ihren Betriebsteil keine eigene Wahl organisiert.</p>
<p>Bei Schwierigkeiten mit der Bildung passender Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten empfiehlt die Praxisliteratur bereits jetzt h&auml;ufig eine kollektivvertragliche Anpassung der Vertretungsstrukturen nach &sect;&nbsp;3 BetrVG. Nachvollziehbar sind Forderungen, diese M&ouml;glichkeiten zu erweitern, etwa f&uuml;r Unternehmen mit Matrixorganisation (Schubert, DJT-Gutachten, S.&nbsp;B70&nbsp;ff.). Solche Unternehmen weisen keine linearen Leitungsstrukturen auf, sondern verteilen die F&uuml;hrungsaufgaben auf zwei gleichrangige Dimensionen, die sich typischerweise an Zentralfunktionen (z.B. IT, Personal) und Gesch&auml;ftsbereichen (z.B. Produkte, Absatzgebiete) orientieren. In solchen F&auml;llen k&ouml;nnen ma&szlig;geschneiderte Vertretungsstrukturen hilfreich sein.</p>
<p>Eine Ausdehnung des &sect; 3 BetrVG hilft gegen die Hemmnisse, einen Betriebsrat zu gr&uuml;nden, aber schon deshalb wenig, weil bei kollektivvertraglichen Anpassungen die Arbeitgeberseite mitwirken muss. Zudem ist ein solches Vorgehen mit rechtlichen Unsicherheiten behaftet. Denn die Rechtsprechung &uuml;berpr&uuml;ft immer h&auml;ufiger Strukturtarifvertr&auml;ge und -betriebsvereinbarungen anhand der in &sect;&nbsp;3 Abs.&nbsp;1 BetrVG enthaltenen unbestimmten Rechtsbegriffe. Das belegt anschaulich der jahrelange Streit bei einer gro&szlig;en Kfz-Werkstattkette &uuml;ber die Bildung eines unternehmenseinheitlichen Betriebsrats. Geplant war, dass freigestellte Betriebsratsmitglieder von einem zentralen Sitz aus Belegschaften an s&auml;mtlichen Standorten im ganzen Bundesgebiet betreuen. Jedoch lehnte das <a href="https://www.gesetze-bayern.de/Content/Document/Y-300-Z-BECKRS-B-2024-N-40880" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">LAG N&uuml;rnberg</a> zuletzt im Oktober 2024 die Sachdienlichkeit einer solchen Gestaltung ab und erkl&auml;rte die Wahl, die auf einer Gesamtbetriebsvereinbarung beruhte, f&uuml;r unwirksam. Das LAG verwies die Akteure im Interesse der Ortsn&auml;he auf die Bildung einer Regionalstruktur.</p>
<h2>&hellip;oder doch eine grundlegende Reform der Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten?</h2>
<p>Hier zeigt sich im Einzelfall, was die bisherige Diskussion &uuml;ber die betriebsverfassungsrechtlichen Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten auch insgesamt pr&auml;gt: Sie ist in einem l&auml;hmenden Gegensatz zwischen Arbeitnehmer- und Entscheidungsn&auml;he gefangen. Einerseits will man die Mitbestimmung m&ouml;glichst lokal ansiedeln, um einen engen Kontakt zwischen Betriebsrat und Belegschaft zu erm&ouml;glichen. Andererseits erscheint es effektiv, die Mitbestimmung dort zu verorten, wo die Entscheidungen fallen, also h&auml;ufig auf Unternehmens- oder sogar auf Konzernebene. Arbeitnehmer- und Entscheidungsn&auml;he stehen dann in einem Gegensatz, heben sich aber eben auch gegenseitig auf, was zu einer gewissen Beliebigkeit der Ergebnisse beitr&auml;gt.</p>
<p>Unabh&auml;ngig davon greift es zu kurz, ein bisschen mehr Entscheidungsn&auml;he hier und ein wenig mehr Arbeitnehmern&auml;he dort zu fordern. Immerhin hat sich inzwischen eine teleologische Betrachtungsweise etabliert. Darauf verzichtete Erwin Jacobi, der vor fast genau hundert Jahren den historischen Ursprung des heutigen Betriebsbegriffs legte, noch vollst&auml;ndig. Aber auch heute ersch&ouml;pfen sich diese Erw&auml;gungen in einer Art Mikro-Teleologie, die in den Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten der Betriebsverfassung kaum mehr als eine technische Fragestellung sieht. Man fragt, welche Repr&auml;sentationseinheit am besten &bdquo;passt&ldquo;, aber nicht, wof&uuml;r sie passen soll. N&ouml;tig w&auml;re eine Makro-Teleologie, die den Betriebsbegriff mit den Grundfragen der Betriebsverfassung verkn&uuml;pft: Was kann und soll die betriebliche Mitbestimmung insgesamt leisten? Wessen Interessen sch&uuml;tzt sie in welchen Situationen? Erst wenn das gekl&auml;rt ist, kann eine sinnvolle Diskussion &uuml;ber Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten beginnen. Analysiert man die einzelnen Mitbestimmungsrechte, fangen die Probleme freilich erst richtig an: Mal st&auml;rkt der Betriebsrat die Rechtsposition einzelner Besch&auml;ftigter, mal vertritt er die Belange der Belegschaft als Ganzes, mal nimmt er die Interessen einer abgrenzbaren Gruppe wahr. Dass diese Mitbestimmungsrechte allesamt auf eine einheitliche Repr&auml;sentationseinheit bezogen werden, erscheint nicht zwingend. N&auml;her liegen vielmehr L&ouml;sungen, die sich an der materiellen Rechtstr&auml;gerschaft f&uuml;r die einzelnen Mitbestimmungsrechte orientieren.</p>
<p>Ein weiterer Gesichtspunkt verdient mehr Aufmerksamkeit: Die Betriebsverfassung ist Fremdbestimmung und damit ein St&uuml;ck Zwangskorporatismus. Die Belegschaftsangeh&ouml;rigen werden vom Betriebsrat vertreten, ob sie das wollen oder nicht. Das unterscheidet die Betriebsautonomie grundlegend von der Tarifautonomie, die auf privatrechtlicher Grundlage rekonstruierbar ist. Der Zuschnitt der Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten ist deshalb nicht nur eine Frage der Organisation, sondern auch eine Frage der Legitimation. Die Betriebsverfassung ist mit R&uuml;cksicht auf die Privatautonomie und Arbeitsvertragsfreiheit so zu gestalten, dass der Grad an Fremdbestimmung das erforderliche Ma&szlig; nicht &uuml;berschreitet.</p>
<h2>Pl&auml;doyer f&uuml;r eine modulare Struktur der Betriebsverfassung</h2>
<p>Wie k&ouml;nnte nun eine Betriebsverfassung aussehen, die bei ihren Repr&auml;sentationseinheiten nach Mitbestimmungsgegenst&auml;nden, Rechtstr&auml;gerschaften und Betroffenheiten differenziert und dabei den Grad an Fremdbestimmung auf das notwendige Ma&szlig; reduziert? An die Stelle eines einheitlichen Betriebsbegriffs als dem universalen Ankn&uuml;pfungspunkt k&ouml;nnte eine modulare Zuordnung der Mitbestimmungsrechte je nach Schutzrichtung und konkreter Betroffenheit treten. Individualsch&uuml;tzende Rechte w&auml;ren im Sinne einer effektiven Interessenverfolgung wohl am besten auf Unternehmensebene angesiedelt. Kollektive Rechte sollten hingegen dort wahrgenommen werden, wo die konkreten Belegschaftsinteressen liegen. Eine notwendige Vorbedingung f&uuml;r eine entsprechende Umgestaltung der Betriebsverfassung liegt allerdings in der gr&uuml;ndlichen Revision und Neustrukturierung der Mitbestimmungsrechte. Denn im geltenden BetrVG sind die einzelnen Tatbest&auml;nde nach anderen Kriterien geordnet.</p>
<p>Eine Modulstruktur erm&ouml;glicht zugleich eine &Uuml;berwindung des bisherigen Alles-oder-Nichts-Prinzips der Betriebsverfassung. Derzeit sind Betriebsr&auml;te in kleinen Einheiten mit dem vollst&auml;ndigen Arsenal der Mitbestimmungsrechte erkennbar &uuml;berfordert. Anhand von Schwellenwerten lie&szlig;en sich z.B. nach Unternehmensgr&ouml;&szlig;e Module aktivieren oder deaktivieren. Zudem ist innerhalb eines festen Rahmens auch eine flexiblere Reaktion auf Ver&auml;nderungen der Unternehmensstruktur m&ouml;glich.</p>
<p>Unverkennbar bedarf es aber zugleich einer institutionellen Kontinuit&auml;t. Als Grundger&uuml;st k&ouml;nnte ein auf Unternehmensebene gew&auml;hltes Gremium dienen, von dem sich Subgremien ableiten. Willensbildung und Aus&uuml;bung der Mitbestimmungsrechte sollten dabei nicht getrennt werden. Zust&auml;ndigkeitskonflikte zwischen den Gremien lie&szlig;en sich verfahrensrechtlich einhegen: etwa durch ein Anfrageverfahren, mit dem der Arbeitgeber vorab Klarheit &uuml;ber die Zust&auml;ndigkeit erh&auml;lt, kombiniert mit strengen Pr&auml;klusionsregeln.</p>
<p>Welche Folgen h&auml;tte ein modulares Modell f&uuml;r die betriebliche Interessenvertretung in den &bdquo;Remote Cities&ldquo; des Essenslieferservices? Anders als im bisherigen System m&uuml;ssten die Gerichte keine generelle Entscheidung &uuml;ber die &bdquo;Unabh&auml;ngigkeit&ldquo; der reinen Liefergebiete treffen. Ebenso wenig m&uuml;sste man &uuml;berlegen, ob die dortige Belegschaft aus bestimmten Gr&uuml;nden, etwa wegen eines gemeinsamen Dienstplans, eine &bdquo;Interessengemeinschaft&ldquo; bildet. Denn gemeinsame Interessen auf bestimmten Feldern bedingen es nicht, dass die gesamte Mitbestimmung auf dieser Ebene anzusiedeln w&auml;re. Es k&auml;me vielmehr auf das konkrete Mitbestimmungsthema an. Sofern es gerade und nur um die Interessen der Besch&auml;ftigten an einem bestimmten Standort geht (wie z.B. bei der Urlaubsplanung), sollte ein Subgremium zust&auml;ndig sein, das mit Besch&auml;ftigten aus dem betroffenen Belegschaftsteil besetzt ist.</p>
<h2>Fazit</h2>
<p>Mit dem &bdquo;Betrieb&ldquo; ist einer der zentralen Grundbegriffe des Betriebsverfassungsrechts unter Druck geraten, weil er immer weniger mit der Unternehmenswirklichkeit in Einklang zu bringen ist. Dies zeigen beispielhaft die F&auml;lle aus der plattformbasierten Lieferwirtschaft, bei denen die Ortlosigkeit der F&uuml;hrungsorganisation den herk&ouml;mmlichen leitungsfixierten Betriebsbegriff an seine Grenzen sto&szlig;en l&auml;sst. Diese strukturellen Probleme tragen zur Erosion der betrieblichen Mitbestimmung bei.</p>
<p>Die bisher diskutierten Reformans&auml;tze zielen &uuml;berwiegend darauf ab, den Betriebsbegriff unangetastet zu lassen und daf&uuml;r das Regelungsumfeld punktuell anzupassen. Vor allem zur Reform des &sect;&nbsp;3 BetrVG (kollektivvertragliche Anpassungen) und des &sect;&nbsp;4 BetrVG (Betriebsteile) liegen interessante Vorschl&auml;ge vor, die rasch umsetzbar w&auml;ren. Unabh&auml;ngig davon sollte der Gesetzgeber aber auch eine l&auml;ngerfristige Reformperspektive in den Blick nehmen. Die Arbeitsrechtswissenschaft sollte sich der Frage stellen, ob die Ankn&uuml;pfung der betrieblichen Mitbestimmung an eine zentrale Repr&auml;sentationseinheit &uuml;berhaupt sinnvoll ist.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-betriebsbegriff/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Mitbestimmung in der Ortlosigkeit</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-01T15:04:58+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Felix Hartmann</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-01T15:04:58+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="arbeitsrecht"/>

	<category term="betriebsrat"/>

	<category term="betriebsratswahl"/>

	<category term="betriebsverfassungsgesetz (1972)"/>

	<category term="crowdworking"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-01:/289290</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/outstanding-women-06-26/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Shirin Ebadi</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>&ldquo;Human rights is a universal standard. It is a component of every religion and every civilization.&rdquo;
...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<blockquote><p>&ldquo;<a href="https://www.nobelwomensinitiative.org/shirinebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Human rights is a universal standard. It is a component of every religion and every civilization.</a>&rdquo;</p></blockquote>
<p>Like many Iranians in 1979, Shirin Ebadi had hoped the revolution would bring something better. The regime that emerged gave her a lifetime&rsquo;s work proving it had not. Ebadi is an Iranian lawyer, jurist, and human rights activist who became the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/press-release/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">first Muslim woman and the first Iranian to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 2003</a>. Her life is a testament to how legal training can be transformed into a means of resistance and how an individual, despite being stripped of institutional power, can still use the law as a tool for justice. As she put it: &ldquo;<a href="https://iranwire.com/en/women/124448-influential-iranian-women-shirin-ebadi-1947/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">I have a tongue in my mouth, and I will not keep quiet until the day I die.&rdquo;</a></p>
<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari.jpeg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-66x66.jpeg 66w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-150x150.jpeg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-200x200.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-300x300.jpeg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-400x400.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-600x600.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari.jpeg 640w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-66x66.jpeg 66w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-150x150.jpeg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-200x200.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-300x300.jpeg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-400x400.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari-600x600.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Ebadi_by-Javaid-Montazari.jpeg 640w" sizes="(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>&copy; Javaid Montazari</p>
<h2>Before the Revolution</h2>
<p>Shirin Ebadi was <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">born on 21 June 1947 in Hamadan, a city in northwestern Iran</a>. Her father, Mohammad Ali Ebadi, was <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a distinguished jurist, a professor of commercial law,</a> and a man she has consistently described as the defining influence on her understanding of justice. The family moved to Tehran when Shirin was an infant, and she grew up in a household where education was expected and intellectual engagement was ordinary. <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">In 1965, she was admitted to the Faculty of Law at the University of Tehran</a>. She followed this with <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a doctorate in private law</a>, also from Tehran, awarded in 1971 with honours.</p>
<p>What might have seemed like a straightforward path towards a traditional legal career was, from the beginning, defined by a determination to go beyond its boundaries. In 1969, after passing the qualifying examinations for the Department of Justice, Ebadi was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shirin-Ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">appointed as a judge &ndash; one of the first women in the history of the Iranian judiciary to hold this office</a>. By 1975, she had risen to become the <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">head of Branch 26 of the Tehran City Court</a>, again the first woman to hold such a position and one of the <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">youngest individuals</a> ever to do so.</p>
<h2>Dismissed, Demoted, Determined</h2>
<p>The Islamic Revolution of 1979 ended all this overnight. The <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">new theocratic leadership declared that Islam forbade women from serving as judges</a>, so Ebadi along with all other female judges were removed from their post and reassigned to clerical duties. She found herself <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">working as a secretary in the very courtroom over which she had previously presided</a>.</p>
<p>The humiliation of this reversal was not lost on her. Ebadi and her colleagues protested, and were subsequently elevated, nominally, to the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">position of &ldquo;legal expert&rdquo;</a> within the Justice Department. Unable to practise her profession in any meaningful way, she applied for early retirement. <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/biographical/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">When she then applied for a licence to practise as a lawyer, the Bar Association, which was under the management of the Judiciary at the time, refused her application for years.</a> During the 1980s, she wrote books about children<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s rights and published articles analysing the legal framework of the Islamic Republic. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shirin-Ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">It was not until 1992, after more than a decade of exclusion, that she was finally permitted to practise law</a>.</p>
<h2>Law as Resistance</h2>
<blockquote><p>&ldquo;If you can&rsquo;t eliminate injustice, at least tell everyone about it.&rdquo;</p></blockquote>
<p>From the outset, Ebadi&rsquo;s legal practice was an act of deliberate opposition. She took on cases that few others would touch, representing political dissidents, victims of state violence and <a href="https://worldjusticeproject.org/world-justice-forum-iv-speaker-shirin-ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">religious minorities like the Baha<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>i</a>. One of her most significant cases was representing the family of Dariush Foruhar, an intellectual who was murdered alongside his wife in 1998 in a series of killings of Iranian writers and intellectuals known as the <a href="https://writersmosaic.org.uk/close-up/the-chain-murders-of-iran/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;Chain Murders&rdquo;</a>, which were attributed to elements within the state&rsquo;s intelligence services. While researching the cases in the Tehran courthouse, she came across a transcript of a conversation between a government minister and a hired assassin. Her own name was on the list:</p>
<div><span lang="EN-GB">&ldquo;</span><a href="https://remember-them.org/shirin-ebadi/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The next person to be killed is Shirin Ebadi.<span>&rdquo; </span></a>She read the line repeatedly, she later recalled, before quietly rearranging her papers and continuing her work. Ebadi <a href="https://remember-them.org/shirin-ebadi/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gathered and distributed evidence implicating government officials in the killings</a>, an act for which she was imprisoned for three weeks in 2000 on charges of <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;spreading falsehoods against the Islamic Republic.&rdquo; </a>Her sentence was later suspended, but she was barred from practising law for five years and fined.</div>
<p>Her institutional work ran alongside her casework. In 1994, she co-founded <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ebadi-shirin-1947" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Society for Protecting the Rights of the Child, one of the first NGOs of its kind in Iran</a>, which sought to improve the legal framework governing children<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s welfare in accordance with the UN <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>. In 2001, she co-founded the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shirin-Ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Defenders of Human Rights Center,</a> offering pro bono legal representation to political prisoners and their families and raising public awareness of human rights abuses. She also participated in the <a href="https://www.nobelwomensinitiative.org/shirinebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Million Signatures Campaign</a>, a grassroots movement demanding an end to legal discrimination against women in Iranian law.</p>
<p>Denied a courtroom, Ebadi created one on the page. During this period, she wrote several books, including The Rights of the Child (1994), History and Documentation of Human Rights in Iran (2000) and The Rights of Women (2002), as well as <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">more than a dozen others</a>. Each one was a legal argument in book form, documenting specific violations and proposing specific reforms, written by someone who had been barred from making those arguments anywhere else.</p>
<h2>A Nobel Prize in a Country That Despised It</h2>
<p>On 10 October 2003, the Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded Shirin Ebadi the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Nobel Peace Prize</a> for her efforts for democracy and human rights, with particular recognition of her work on behalf of women and children. She was the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the award.</p>
<p>The Iranian government<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s response was revealing.<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/02/iran.guardianhayfestival2006" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> President Khatami, himself considered a reformist, dismissed the prize as &ldquo;not very important&rdquo;.</a> Conservative newspapers described it as an attack on Islam by the West. The authorities did not organise a public celebration. During the Oslo ceremony and at the press conference abroad, Ebadi <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3678737" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">appeared without a headscarf as a deliberate statement</a> that, in Iran, her <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nobel-peace-laureate-accepts-prize/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">headscarf was imposed by law</a> rather than a personal choice, before wearing one again on her return to Tehran, where the law required it. &nbsp;In Tehran, she received a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/02/iran.guardianhayfestival2006" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">warm welcome from crowds</a> who understood the significance of the prize.</p>
<p>Her legal and political philosophy was based on the idea that the <a href="https://rsf.org/en/dr-shirin-ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fight for women<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s rights in Iran was not against Islam itself, but rather against a specific interpretation of it</a>. As she has put it in many interviews: <span lang="EN-GB">&ldquo;</span><a href="https://rsf.org/en/dr-shirin-ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">I am against patriarchy, not Islam&rdquo;</a>.</p>
<h2>Confiscation and Exile</h2>
<p>The years following the Nobel Prize brought escalating pressure. In 2008, the Iranian authorities forcibly closed the Defenders of Human Rights Center, citing <span lang="EN-GB">&ldquo;</span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shirin-Ebadi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">propaganda against the state</a><span lang="EN-GB">&rdquo;.</span> Law offices were raided, and her personal property was confiscated. While attending a conference in Spain in <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">January 2009</a>, Ebadi assessed the accelerating persecution of human rights activists and made the decision not to return. <a href="https://shirinebadifoundation.org/about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">She has remained in exile in the United Kingdom ever since.</a></p>
<p>The Iranian government<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s retaliation did not stop with her departure. Her husband was beaten and arrested. Her sister was detained. <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/speedread/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Her bank accounts were frozen due to fabricated tax charges</a>. While Ebadi was abroad, the <a href="https://observer.co.uk/news/international/article/the-regime-told-me-stop-making-all-this-noise-outside-iran-killing-you-would-be-easy" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">regime set a honey trap for her husband and forced him to make a televised statement denouncing his wife.</a> The marriage, subjected to relentless state pressure, eventually ended in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rL-YquV4ybw&amp;list=PLDiuKTqIIeTwP2ByhUgaQ0AFkv8lQyTrP&amp;index=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">divorce</a>. Then, in November 2009, <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/Ebadi_Stripped_Of_Nobel_Peace_Prize/1888908.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iranian authorities raided a bank vault and confiscated Ebadi<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s Nobel Peace Prize medal and diploma</a>, the physical embodiment of the world<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s recognition of her work, in an act without precedent in the history of the Nobel Prize. The authorities also brought charges against her in the Revolutionary Court, a proceeding she refused to recognise.</p>
<p>From London, Ebadi rebuilt what had been destroyed. In 2012, she established the <a href="https://iranwire.com/en/women/124448-influential-iranian-women-shirin-ebadi-1947/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Centre for Defenders of Human Rights in London</a>, thereby continuing the work of the Tehran organisation from exile. She has published <a href="https://iranwire.com/en/women/124448-influential-iranian-women-shirin-ebadi-1947/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">monthly bilingual reports on human rights violations in Iran</a>, delivered lectures at universities across the world, and maintained a consistent public presence on Iranian affairs. From her exile, Ebadi also watched successive waves of protest wash over Iran since 2009, including the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/2009-Iranian-presidential-election-protests" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Movement</a>, the <a href="https://iran-shutdown.amnesty.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2019 uprising</a> &ndash; and then, Zan, Zendegi, Azadi in 2022, the slogan that turned four decades of her legal arguments into a street chant.</p>
<h2><span lang="EN-GB">&ldquo;</span>Woman, Life, Freedom<span lang="EN-GB">&rdquo;</span></h2>
<p>In September 2022, the young Iranian woman <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/09/what-happened-to-mahsa-zhina-amini/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mahsa Amini</a> died in police custody, her alleged crime being the improper wearing of the hijab. The protests that swept Iran following her death gave Ebadi<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s decades of work a new context and a new urgency. The movement&rsquo;s slogan, <a href="https://www.womanlifefreedom.today/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zan, Zendegi, Azadi &ndash; Woman, Life, Freedom</a>, resonated directly with the issues she had been raising since the 1980s.</p>
<p>Ebadi expressed her unequivocal support for the protesters and provided a legal analysis of the challenges they faced. <a href="https://www.nobelwomensinitiative.org/dr_shirin_ebadi_addresses_un_security_council" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">In November 2022, she addressed the UN Security Council</a>, urging the international community to hold the Iranian government accountable for <a href="https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/shirin-ebadi-mahsa-amini-revolution-unite/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gender apartheid, a system in which a woman&rsquo;s life is legally worth half that of a man, and two women<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s testimony is equivalent to one man<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s</a>. Describing the movement as both cultural and political, she argued that it marks a generational shift in how Iranians understand the relationship between gender, religion and the state. The new protest slogan was, she argued, <a href="https://en.gariwo.net/magazine/interviews/shirin-ebadi-to-gariwo-women-will-make-the-iranian-revolution-26436.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a demand for life made by the woman who sustain it</a>.</p>
<p>That the generational shift comes at a cost, is visible through the fate if <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2023/mohammadi/facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Narges Mohammadi,</a> the imprisoned activist and 2023 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, with whom Ebadi <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/nobel-laureate-ebadi-hopes-mohammadis-prize-will-bring-equality-iranian-women-2023-10-06/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">co-founded the Defenders of Human Rights Centre</a>.</p>
<h2>The View from Exile</h2>
<p>At the end of 2025, another eruption occurred. <a href="https://www.nobelwomensinitiative.org/dispatches-from-shirin-ebadi-on-iran-revolution" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The December 2025 protests began in Tehran<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s bazaar, triggered by an acute currency collapse</a> and the spectre of renewed inflation. However, they quickly shed their economic framing and once again became a demand for an end to the Islamic Republic. Security forces responded with lethal force. This was followed by a nationwide internet blackout, which Ebadi publicly described not as a technical failure, but as <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/nobel-shirin-ebadi-iran-protests-interview/33637862.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a deliberate tactic of concealment, warning that killing, detention, and organised concealment were taking place on a scale that the outside world could not yet measure.</a></p>
<p>Her legal and political analysis of Iran<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s current situation is more definitive than ever before. In <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/nobel-shirin-ebadi-iran-protests-interview/33637862.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">January 2026</a>, she described the protests as revealing a decisive shift in which many Iranians had concluded that the establishment must end and that repression no longer achieved its purpose precisely because people had nothing left to lose. <a href="https://www.iranintl.com/en/202508262985" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">She added that there was no hope left for the Islamic Republic</a>. She called for its overthrow and specified the legal form it should be <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/nobel-shirin-ebadi-iran-protests-interview/33637862.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a referendum conducted under UN supervision, in which Iranians would determine their own political future</a>. That demand is now taking an institutional form after she accepted the chairmanship of a <a href="https://x.com/PahlaviReza/status/2033584117657272658" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">transitional justice committee</a> established by exiled Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi in March 2026.</p>
<h2>Sharp Legal Critique</h2>
<p>What distinguishes Ebadi&rsquo;s position from simple opposition politics is its legal precision. Ebadi does not call for foreign military intervention, a position she has held consistently since before the Iraq War, when she <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ebadi-shirin-1947" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stated that democracy cannot be imported through cluster bombs</a>. Instead, she calls for the international legal framework, including the UN, to serve its proper function as a guarantee through which people can exercise self-determination. The mechanism she demands is a legal one, even if the path to it runs through popular uprising.</p>
<p>Equally central to her current analysis is a sharp critique not only of Tehran alone, but also of Western governments. For decades, she has argued, the <a href="https://www.iranintl.com/en/202508262985" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">international community has treated Iran<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s nuclear programme as the primary problem and human rights as a secondary concern</a>. Her formulation is unambiguous stating that <a href="https://www.iranintl.com/en/202508262985" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">any government that chooses to negotiate with the Islamic Republic bears a legal and moral obligation to place human rights violations at the top of that agenda, not as a footnote</a>. The deaths of protesters, the execution of juvenile offenders, documented in a <a href="https://iranhumanrights.org/2025/06/unicefs-silence-on-iran-nobel-laureate-demands-action-on-childrens-rights-abuses/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">June 2025</a> letter she addressed directly to the head of UNICEF, condemning that organisation<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s silence in the face of ongoing child rights violations are, in her view, partly enabled by a world order that has repeatedly decided they are acceptable costs. This is the work of both a jurist and an activist through which she identifies legal obligations, documents their breach and insists on accountability.</p>
<h2>The Longest Case</h2>
<p>What Shirin Ebadi<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s career demonstrates, above all, is that legal training is not merely a professional credential. It is a way of seeing the world and one that does not switch off when the courtroom is closed, the licence revoked or the border crossed. Stripped of her judgeship, she found a wider reach. Driven into exile, she continued the work from London with the same methodical insistence she had brought to the Tehran courts.</p>
<p>What distinguishes her contribution to international human rights law is the intellectual framework she advanced: <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2003/ebadi/lecture/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">that universal human rights standards are compatible with and indeed demanded by a properly understood Islam</a>, and that discriminatory laws derive their authority not from religion but from political power masquerading as religious necessity. This has shaped how reformers within Iran and across the Muslim world have engaged with questions of women<span lang="EN-GB">&rsquo;</span>s rights and legal equality.</p>
<p>Shirin Ebadi has spent more than four decades insisting that a different Iran is legally possible, morally necessary, and historically inevitable. A generation has grown up inside Iran that no longer needs to be convinced. She says she will go home. The question for her is no longer whether, but when.</p>
<h2>Further Sources:</h2>
<ul>
<li>Shirin Ebadi, Iran Awakening: A Memoir of Revolution and Hope (2006, with Azadeh Moaveni)</li>
<li>Shirin Ebadi, Until We Are Free: My Fight for Human Rights in Iran (2016)</li>
<li>Shirin Ebadi, The Rights of the Child: A Study of Legal Aspects of Children&rsquo;s Rights in Iran (1994)</li>
<li>WDR 5, Das Feature, <a href="https://www1.wdr.de/radio/wdr5/sendungen/dok5/friedensnobelpreistraegerin-shirin-ebadi-100.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;Niemals aufgeben.&rdquo; Friedensnobelpreistr&auml;gerin Shirin Ebadi</a>, 1 January 2023</li>
<li>Tomorrow, Today, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rL-YquV4ybw&amp;list=PLDiuKTqIIeTwP2ByhUgaQ0AFkv8lQyTrP&amp;index=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Inside Iran: Shirin Ebadi Explains Politics, War and Women&rsquo;s Rights</a>, 5 June 2026</li>
<li>Sina Ataeian Dena, Seven Winters in Tehran (documentary film, Germany/France 2023)</li>
</ul>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/outstanding-women-06-26/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Shirin Ebadi</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-01T12:16:58+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Muskan Kakkar</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-01T12:16:58+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="european and constitutional law"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="human rights"/>

	<category term="iran"/>

	<category term="outstanding women of international"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="women rights"/>

	<category term="ʿibādī šīrīn | 1947– | rechtsanwältin"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-01:/289291</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/crossing-a-line-in-plain-sight/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Crossing a Line in Plain Sight</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On May 15, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (CoE) unanimously adopted a political...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On May 15, the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/cm/about-cm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Committee of Ministers</a> of the Council of Europe (CoE) unanimously adopted a <a href="https://rm.coe.int/pdf/09125948802bc2cc" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">political Declaration</a> on the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) at their annual session in Chi&#537;in&#259;u. What was adopted is more measured than the political statements that preceded it. But the underlying tension &ndash; driven by the demand of some states to pursue more restrictive migration policies without being constrained by the Convention &ndash; remains. The Declaration is arguably not the catastrophe it could have been but its moderation is beside the point. By purporting to define what Convention guarantees substantively mean, the member states have crossed a line that no diplomatic phrasing can neutralise.</p>
<h2>From the &ldquo;Letter of the Nine&rdquo; to a Political Declaration</h2>
<p>In May 2025, nine governments &ndash; led by the Denmark and Italy &ndash; published an <a href="https://www.governo.it/sites/governo.it/files/Lettera_aperta_22052025.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">open letter</a> claiming that the Court had overreached in its interpretation of the Convention&rsquo;s guarantees. The signatories called for an &ldquo;open-minded&rdquo; debate about how the ECHR should be interpreted, ostensibly to restore a balance they claimed had been lost. Many, among them also the Secretary General of the CoE, <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/alain-berset-on-the-joint-letter-challenging-the-european-court-of-human-rights" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Alain Berset</a>, read the letter as a frontal challenge to the Court&rsquo;s authority (for a detailed analysis see <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/letter-human-rights-european-court-migration/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>).</p>
<p>The CoE channelled the controversy into a formalised process. An informal ministerial meeting in December <a href="https://rm.coe.int/informal-ministerial-conference-10-december-2025-conclusions/488029b843" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tasked</a> the Human Rights Steering Committee (CDDH) with drafting a political declaration. In the margins of that same meeting, a sharper and more alarming <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/joint-statement-to-the-conference-of-ministers-of-justice-of-the-council-of-europe" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">joint statement of 27 states</a> reignited the narrative that the Court&rsquo;s case law was hampering them in their migration policies and called for a more restrictive application of Articles 3 and 8 of the Convention (for a critical analysis see <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/a-divided-response-to-migration/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>).</p>
<p>The final Declaration, building on the Steering Committee&rsquo;s work, was adopted on May 15. Much anticipatory commentary had warned that the final text might formally undercut the Court&rsquo;s authority (see <a href="https://www.ejiltalk.org/countdown-to-chisinau-the-risk-of-politicising-the-echr-over-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, and for an analysis of the author herself <a href="https://www.juwiss.de/45-2026/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). So, what does it actually say?</p>
<h2>A Harder Draft, A Softer Outcome</h2>
<p>The good news is that several of the most troubling elements present in the <a href="https://rm.coe.int/steering-committee-for-human-rights-cddh-cddh-outcome-document-contain/48802b061a" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CDDH&rsquo;s final draft</a> did not survive in the adopted text. This is most likely the <a href="https://echrblog.com/open-minded-or-open-ended-the-chisinau-declaration-on-the-echr-and-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">price of unanimity</a>: in order to secure the agreement of all member states, some of the more radical demands had to be diluted or dropped. We should not, however, assume that the 27 states behind December&rsquo;s hardline statement have abandoned those positions. But it is worth noting that they failed to organise a blocking majority for them (the <a href="https://www.ejiltalk.org/copenhagen-much-ado-about-little/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">parallels with the draft Copenhagen Declaration</a> of 2018 are worth recalling).</p>
<p>The final Declaration explicitly affirms the independence of the Court &ndash; a commitment placed pointedly at the beginning of the document (preamble para. 3). The version adopted no longer includes the provision that would have subjected the Court&rsquo;s <em>development</em> of Convention guarantees to political dialogue between states and the Court (CDDH Draft para. 11); only their respective roles in <em>applying</em> the Convention remain the subject of that conversation (para. 48).</p>
<p>Equally notable is what else disappeared: the explicit references to the <a href="https://www.echr.coe.int/w/grand-chamber-hearings-concerning-poland-latvia-and-lithuania" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">instrumentalisation cases</a> currently pending before the Court (CDDH Draft para. 55; as opposed to para. 37-40 of the final Declaration). In these cases, the Court is called to assess pushbacks of migrants at the Belarusian border carried out against the backdrop of state-facilitated migration flows designed to put pressure on the EU. Framing the passage on instrumentalisation in general terms rather than commenting directly on the pending cases (particularly para. 39) is welcome, though it likely reflects a desire to extend the Declaration&rsquo;s longevity rather than any principled restraint.</p>
<p>Throughout the text, the Declaration does not explicitly criticise any existing case law. Thus, it abstains from reproducing the prior narrative that the Court hampers effective migration management. Even more laudable, near the end, the Declaration calls on member states to prevent the spread of misinformation about its case law (para. 58). That passage reads at least as a tacit acknowledgement of how states have weaponised that narrative to criticise Court.</p>
<h2>The Remaining Problem</h2>
<p>These edits matter, but they should not distract from what the Declaration still does: it asserts that the states themselves can pronounce on the substantive content and right interpretation of Convention rights. Such substantial remarks are entirely novel to the established instrument of a political Declaration.</p>
<p>Take the entire subsection on Article 3. The Declaration states that the threshold for inhuman or degrading treatment &ndash; a guarantee that is, it bears repeating, absolute and non-derogable (as also acknowledged in para. 22) &ndash; should be met only in &ldquo;very exceptional circumstances&rdquo; (para. 25).</p>
<p>The Declaration continues to express that deficient healthcare (para. 25), socio-economic hardships (para. 26), poor detention conditions (para. 27) and a generally poor human rights record of the receiving state (para. 28) should not suffice on their own to establish a risk that prevents states from returning migrants under non-refoulement, at least not automatically. Effectively, this can be read as an implicit call upon the Court to narrow the scope of Article 3 in the migration context.</p>
<p>On expulsion and deportation of foreign nationals who have committed criminal offences, the Declaration insists that only national law should govern the decision (para. 21), and that &ldquo;unnecessary constraints&rdquo; by the Court should be avoided (para. 23). The principle of subsidiarity is invoked throughout (paras. 1, 4, 5, 6, 32, 52, 55).</p>
<p>The Declaration also fails to engage properly with the Court&rsquo;s case law. It underlines that the states enjoy a particularly wide margin of appreciation in matters of national security (para. 32). The CDDH Draft, from which this formulation was taken, supported the claim with references to the Court&rsquo;s case law (Fn. 16). It cited <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-183543%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Gaspar v. Russia</em></a> as a source for the wide margin (para. 43). Yet, this reference is misleading: In that case, the Court immediately qualified its statement (para. 44) and eventually found a violation. The Draft passes over this qualification in silence. Although the final Declaration omits the footnotes, its assertion of a wide margin still relies on this non-differentiated reading of the Court&rsquo;s case law.</p>
<p>Similarly, the Declaration asserts that a diplomatic assurance can &ldquo;obviate&rdquo; an Article 3 risk (para. 30) without engaging with the Court&rsquo;s demanding requirements for when such assurances are actually sufficient to rebut that risk (cf. particularly <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%7B%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-108629%22%5D%7D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Othman (Abu Qatada) v. the United Kingdom</em></a>).</p>
<p>Throughout the Declaration, sweeping state powers are qualified by the reminder that they must of course be exercised in conformity with the Convention (para. 24, 35). In practice, however, these compatibility clauses carry little independent weight. They do not define, limit, or condition the powers in question and remind a lot of the <a href="https://beck-online.beck.de/?vpath=bibdata%2Fkomm%2FKluBreJunHdbMigR_1%2Fcont%2FKluBreJunHdbMigR%2EglTeil4%2EglD%2EglVI%2Ehtm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hollow human rights compatibility clauses</a> in the EU&rsquo;s New Pact on Migration and Asylum.</p>
<p>Finally, the Declaration emphasises the need to respect the circumstances of a case and adapt a &ldquo;context-specific&rdquo; application of Convention rights. This echoes the <a href="https://pure.mpg.de/view/item_3650134" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">context-driven interpretations</a> the responding Governments have advanced in the oral hearings of the instrumentalisation cases (see above). This risks the gradual creation of a Convention underclass: groups whose rights are formally guaranteed but contextually diluted wherever states deem the circumstances sufficiently exceptional (see <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2026/05/25/les-etats-europeens-doivent-affirmer-qu-un-etre-humain-ne-se-verra-jamais-attribuer-un-statut-inferieur-au-motif-qu-il-a-migre_6693627_3232.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). The AGORA group, in an <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7460977138033295360?utm_source=share&amp;utm_medium=member_desktop&amp;rcm=ACoAADSqbf8BP0urriQwKJRjLdsVc_6_1H99psk" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">immediate response</a>, raised the same concern, warning that differentiated standards would create a hierarchy of rights-holders and risk eroding protection for other groups in the future.</p>
<h2>Why This All Matters</h2>
<p>What makes the Chi&#537;in&#259;u Declaration different from <a href="https://www.coe.int/cs/web/execution/political-declarations" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">prior political declarations</a> and particularly troubling is its substantive content and the ambition behind it. Previous declarations had sought to influence how the Court operates &ndash; its procedures, its docket management, its relationship with domestic courts (for an overview see <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/hrlr20&amp;id=123&amp;collection=journals" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>). This Declaration goes further: it purports to shape what the Convention guarantees mean. This qualitative shift is why the Declaration&rsquo;s diplomatic tone cannot be mistaken for relief.</p>
<p>The entire process was driven by states whose primary interest is in narrowing the Convention&rsquo;s reach in migration matters and to place national security interests above the individual rights of migrants. That the final text is more measured and softened than prior Drafts is likely thanks to the influence of the states that already declined to join the December statement (notably the states receiving the most migrants, Germany, France, and Turkey were among them). But their moderating influence should not be mistaken for resolution of the underlying and ongoing conflict.</p>
<h2>What Comes Next</h2>
<p>The Declaration does not formally bind the Court, but it shapes the interpretive environment in which it operates. It signals to domestic courts, state agents, and the public what member states collectively believe the Convention means. The Court itself is <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/between-forbearance-and-audacity/legal-change-in-times-of-backlash/885C65263E2CCA78794C11E990F52606" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">not immune</a> to such signals. If the Declaration&rsquo;s practical effect is limited to prompting <a href="https://echrblog.com/open-minded-or-open-ended-the-chisinau-declaration-on-the-echr-and-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">more detailed reasoning</a> in migration judgments, that would be the best outcome one could hope for.</p>
<p>But the deeper problem is structural. A political declaration that claims interpretive authority over the Convention, however diplomatically worded, normalises that claim. The line crossed at Chi&#537;in&#259;u is not defined by the harshness of the text, but by the fact that it contains substantive demands at all. Whether the states&rsquo; promised respect for the Court&rsquo;s independence amounts to more than lip service remains to be seen.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/crossing-a-line-in-plain-sight/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Crossing a Line in Plain Sight</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-01T08:32:47+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Lina Sophie Möller</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-01T08:32:47+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="chișinău"/>

	<category term="echr"/>

	<category term="ecthr"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="europäischer gerichtshof für menschenrechte | straßburg"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-06-01:/289261</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/service-01-06-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Service am Montag</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Stellenausschreibungen Wissenschaftliche*r Mitarbeiter*in, 50% E 13 TV-L, befristet auf 3 Jahre, Leh...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Stellenausschreibungen Wissenschaftliche*r Mitarbeiter*in, 50% E 13 TV-L, befristet auf 3 Jahre, Lehrstuhl f&uuml;r &Ouml;ffentliches Recht, Europarecht und V&ouml;lkerrecht (Prof. Dr. Daniel Thym), ab 1.8.2026, Universit&auml;t Konstanz, Frist: 10.07.2026 Zwei Stellen als Wissenschaftliche*r Mitarbeiter*in, 50% E 13 TV-H, befristet auf 3 Jahre, Institut f&uuml;r Sozialwesen &ndash; Fachgebiet Just Transitions (Prof. Dr. Fischer-Lescano), Universit&auml;t Kassel, Frist: 25.06.2026...</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-06-01T08:00:16+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>JuWiss Redaktion</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-06-01T08:00:16+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="das finden wir spannend"/>

	<category term="service"/>

	<category term="stellen"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-29:/289065</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/haftsystem-libyen-istgh/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">„Das Haftsystem ist in Libyen zu einer Industrie geworden“</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Im Mai 2026 schloss der Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) das Verfahren zur Best&auml;tigung der A...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<div>
<p>Im Mai 2026 schloss der <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/libya/el-hishri" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) das Verfahren zur Best&auml;tigung der Anklagepunkte</a> gegen Khaled El Hishri ab, einen ehemaligen hochrangigen Offizier der libyschen Special Deterrence Force (SDF/RADA). F&uuml;nfzehn Jahre nach der &Uuml;berweisung der Situation in Libyen an den Gerichtshof <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/situations/libya" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">durch den UN-Sicherheitsrat</a> muss sich damit erstmals ein Verd&auml;chtiger in Den Haag verantworten. Dass das so lange dauerte, sagt ebenso viel &uuml;ber Libyen und die europ&auml;ische &nbsp;Migrationspolitik wie &uuml;ber den IStGH aus: ein Land, in dem Zust&auml;ndigkeiten verschwimmen und sich die Frage nach individueller Verantwortung kaum von der Frage trennen l&auml;sst, wer &uuml;berhaupt den &bdquo;Staat&ldquo; verk&ouml;rpert und welche Rolle europ&auml;ische Akteure spielen.</p>
<p>Deutsche Beh&ouml;rden nahmen El Hishri im Juli 2025 am Flughafen Berlin-Brandenburg fest und &uuml;berstellten ihn im Dezember desselben Jahres an den IStGH. Die <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/libya/el-hishri" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Anklage</a> richtet sich zwar gegen El Hishri pers&ouml;nlich und betrifft Taten, die zwischen 2014 und 2020 im Mitiga-Gef&auml;ngnis in Tripolis begangen worden sein sollen. Gleichzeitig macht die Anklageschrift ein System sichtbar, dessen Strukturen weit schwerer zu durchdringen sind. Mitiga war formal Teil des libyschen Haftsystems, stand faktisch aber unter der Kontrolle einer bewaffneten Gruppe mit eigener Befehlskette und eigenen wirtschaftlichen Interessen.</p>
<p>Gerade deshalb ist Mitiga ein besonders aufschlussreiches Beispiel daf&uuml;r, wie Macht seit 2011 in Libyen ausge&uuml;bt wird. Der Fall El Hishri wirft letztlich eine noch unangenehmere Frage auf als die nach der M&ouml;glichkeit von strafrechtlicher Verantwortung: F&uuml;r welche Muster der Ausbeutung soll &uuml;berhaupt Verantwortung &uuml;bernommen werden &ndash; und wer entzieht sich ihr vollst&auml;ndig? Wir haben mit Allison West, Senior Legal Advisor beim European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR), &uuml;ber die Komplexit&auml;t des Verfahrens gesprochen und dar&uuml;ber, wie es sich in den gr&ouml;&szlig;eren Kampf um Gerechtigkeit in Libyen einf&uuml;gt.</p>
<p><strong>1. Der Fall El Hishri ist der erste Fall der Libyen-Situation, der seit der &Uuml;berweisung von 2011 den IStGH erreicht hat &ndash; und er bewegt sich genau an der Schnittstelle zwischen staatlicher Autorit&auml;t und bewaffneter Gruppe, die das Mitiga-Gef&auml;ngnis bis heute pr&auml;gt. K&ouml;nnen Sie unseren Leserinnen erl&auml;utern, worum es in dem Verfahren geht, was El Hishri vorgeworfen wird und warum der Fall weit &uuml;ber diesen einzelnen Angeklagten hinausreicht?</strong></p>
<p>Eines seiner Opfer bezeichnete El Hishri als &bdquo;Todesengel&ldquo;. Ihm werden 17 F&auml;lle von Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit und Kriegsverbrechen vorgeworfen, die sich vor allem gegen Gefangene im Mitiga-Gef&auml;ngnis in Tripolis richteten. Nach Darstellung der Anklage geh&ouml;rte er zur F&uuml;hrung der m&auml;chtigen, in Tripolis ans&auml;ssigen Miliz SDF/RADA, die dem libyschen Pr&auml;sidialrat nahesteht, und war zugleich einer der leitenden Verantwortlichen des Gef&auml;ngnisses. Besonders bemerkenswert ist, dass die Anklage ihm nicht nur vorwirft, in seiner F&uuml;hrungsrolle schwere Misshandlungen von M&auml;nnern, Frauen, Jungen und M&auml;dchen &ndash; Libyern ebenso wie Nicht-Libyern &ndash; angeordnet, &uuml;berwacht oder geduldet zu haben. Vielmehr soll er s&auml;mtliche 17 angeklagten Taten auch selbst begangen haben, darunter Folter, Mord, Vergewaltigung und andere Formen sexualisierter Gewalt, Versklavung und Verfolgung. Anders gesagt: Er f&uuml;hrte durch eigenes Vorbild.</p>
<p>Der Fall ist deshalb bedeutsam, weil erstmals seit f&uuml;nfzehn Jahren Ermittlungen des IStGH zu Libyen ein Verd&auml;chtiger an den Gerichtshof &uuml;berstellt und mit konkreten Vorw&uuml;rfen konfrontiert wurde. F&uuml;r &Uuml;berlebende, betroffene Gemeinschaften und zivilgesellschaftliche Organisationen, die seit Jahren Verbrechen in Mitiga und anderen Haftanstalten in Libyen dokumentieren, er&ouml;ffnet sich damit erstmals die reale M&ouml;glichkeit, diese Taten von einem internationalen Gericht rechtlich eingeordnet und aufgearbeitet zu bekommen. Zugleich erhalten &Uuml;berlebende die Chance, geh&ouml;rt zu werden und am Verfahren teilzunehmen. Gerade diese partizipative und wahrheitsstiftende Dimension internationaler Strafjustiz ist von enormer Bedeutung.</p>
<p>Die Tragweite des Falls reicht allerdings weit &uuml;ber einen einzelnen Angeklagten und ein einzelnes Gef&auml;ngnis hinaus. Mitiga steht exemplarisch f&uuml;r breitere Muster innerhalb des libyschen Haftsystems, in dem Gefangenschaft zu einer Quelle von Macht und Profit geworden ist, insbesondere f&uuml;r schwarze afrikanische Migrantinnen und Migranten sowie Gefl&uuml;chtete, die versklavt werden und besonders schwerer systematischer Ausbeutung und Gewalt ausgesetzt sind. Hervorzuheben ist auch der intersektionale Ansatz der Anklage: Sie erkennt an, dass die Verbrechen in Mitiga durch Faktoren wie Hautfarbe, Nationalit&auml;t, ethnische Zugeh&ouml;rigkeit, Geschlecht, Alter oder Migrationsstatus gepr&auml;gt und versch&auml;rft wurden &ndash; unabh&auml;ngig davon, ob diese Merkmale tats&auml;chlich vorlagen oder den Betroffenen lediglich zugeschrieben wurden.</p>
<p>++++++++++<em>Anzeige++++</em>++++++++</p>
<p><a href="https://lage.link/verfblog/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-600x400.jpeg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-150x100.jpeg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-200x133.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-300x200.jpeg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-400x267.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-600x400.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation.jpeg 640w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-150x100.jpeg 150w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-200x133.jpeg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-300x200.jpeg 300w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-400x267.jpeg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation-600x400.jpeg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lage-der-Nation.jpeg 640w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></a><br>
<em>Die &ldquo;<a href="https://lage.link/verfblog/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lage der Nation</a>&rdquo; ist der <strong>Politikpodcast</strong> f&uuml;r alle, die wissen wollen, was hinter den Schlagzeilen steckt &ndash; und wie das Zeitgeschehen juristisch zu bewerten ist.</em></p>
<p><em>Der Journalist Philip Banse und der Jurist Ulf Buermeyer analysieren das politische Treiben hierzulande und in der Welt, sezieren gesellschaftliche Konflikte und betrachten sie auch aus juristischer Perspektive.</em></p>
<p><em>Die Lage der Nation ist kein juristischer Fachpodcast, sondern liefert <strong>Fakten und politische Analyse mit juristischer Expertise</strong>. <a href="https://lage.link/verfblog/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hier h&ouml;ren</a>.</em></p>
<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p><strong>2. Der Fall El Hishri r&uuml;ckt Libyen wieder in den Fokus des IStGH. Gleichzeitig wirkt die internationale Aufmerksamkeit f&uuml;r Libyen oft episodisch: Sie flammt in Krisenmomenten auf und ebbt dann schnell wieder ab. Welche strukturellen Dynamiken erschweren aus Ihrer Sicht eine konsequente strafrechtliche Aufarbeitung so nachhaltig &ndash; selbst dann, wenn die Beweise f&uuml;r schwerste Verbrechen &uuml;berw&auml;ltigend sind?</strong></p>
<p>Beweise f&uuml;r internationale Verbrechen in Libyen &ndash; und h&auml;ufig auch f&uuml;r die Verantwortlichen dahinter &ndash; liegen seit Jahren vor. &Uuml;berlebende, libysche und internationale zivilgesellschaftliche Organisationen, Journalistinnen und Journalisten, UN-Gremien und Menschenrechtsorganisationen haben sie umfassend dokumentiert. Das Problem ist also kein Mangel an Wissen. Rechenschaft scheitert vielmehr daran, dass m&auml;chtige Akteure politisch und wirtschaftlich weiterhin von diesen Verbrechen profitieren.</p>
<p>Das Haftsystem ist in Libyen zu einer Industrie geworden und bildet einen zentralen Bestandteil der Konflikt&ouml;konomie nach 2011. Menschen, denen die Freiheit entzogen wurde, werden zur Ware: durch Erpressung, Zwangsarbeit, L&ouml;segeldforderungen, Menschenhandel oder als Mittel, Ressourcen im Namen der Migrationskontrolle zu sichern. Viele Akteure im Haftsystem profitieren zugleich von staatsnahen Funktionen und offen kriminellen Aktivit&auml;ten. Besonders deutlich zeigt sich das bei der Inhaftierung von Migrantinnen, Migranten und Gefl&uuml;chteten, betrifft aber auch Libyerinnen und Libyer.</p>
<p>Hinzu kommt, dass mutma&szlig;liche T&auml;ter h&auml;ufig Milizen oder bewaffneten Gruppen angeh&ouml;ren, die durch staatliche Institutionen, neben ihnen oder an ihrer Stelle agieren. Selbst wenn Opfer Misshandlungen melden &ndash; oft unter erheblichem Risiko f&uuml;r die eigene Sicherheit &ndash;, bleibt die Justiz zersplittert, unter Druck und kaum in der Lage, glaubw&uuml;rdige Strafverfolgung sicherzustellen. Gerade deshalb ist der R&uuml;ckgriff auf den IStGH als letztes Mittel so wichtig.</p>
<p>Allerdings kann auch der IStGH nur funktionieren, wenn Staaten kooperieren. El Hishri befindet sich in Den Haag, weil Deutschland ihn festgenommen und &uuml;berstellt hat. Italien dagegen nahm 2025 mit Osama Elmasry Njeem einen weiteren vom IStGH gesuchten Verd&auml;chtigen fest, gegen den ebenfalls wegen mutma&szlig;licher Verbrechen in Mitiga ermittelt wird, lie&szlig; ihn jedoch wieder frei und brachte ihn nach Libyen zur&uuml;ck. Der IStGH stellte inzwischen fest, dass Italien damit gegen seine Kooperationspflichten versto&szlig;en hat. Das ECCHR unterst&uuml;tzt nun eine anh&auml;ngige Beschwerde vor dem Europ&auml;ischen Gerichtshof f&uuml;r Menschenrechte, mit der ein &Uuml;berlebender der Folter durch Elmasry gegen Italiens mangelnde Zusammenarbeit vorgeht. All das zeigt, warum sich strafrechtliche Verantwortung trotz erdr&uuml;ckender Beweislage so schwer durchsetzen l&auml;sst.</p>
<p><strong>3. In internationalen rechtlichen und politischen Debatten wird Libyen oft auf Schlagworte reduziert: &bdquo;Staatszerfall&ldquo;, &bdquo;Milizen&ldquo;, &bdquo;Haftlager&ldquo;, &bdquo;Migration&ldquo;. Welche dieser dominanten Erz&auml;hlungen verzerrt Ihrer Meinung nach die Realit&auml;t vor Ort am st&auml;rksten &ndash; und was &uuml;bersehen Beobachter von au&szlig;en dadurch systematisch?</strong></p>
<p>Am irref&uuml;hrendsten ist die Erz&auml;hlung vom &bdquo;Zusammenbruch&ldquo;, weil sie nahelegt, die Gewalt in Libyen sei chaotisch und unsystematisch. Tats&auml;chlich sind die Machtstrukturen seit 2011 tief fragmentiert. Was externe Beobachter aber h&auml;ufig &uuml;bersehen: Selbst in diesem zersplitterten Kontext eines andauernden bewaffneten Konflikts und st&auml;ndig wechselnder Machtzentren existieren organisierte Systeme der Gewalt. Dazu geh&ouml;rt insbesondere die libysche Haftindustrie, &uuml;ber die unterschiedliche Akteure Einfluss sichern, Gewinne erzielen und Macht konsolidieren. Das Mitiga-Gef&auml;ngnis unter Kontrolle der SDF/RADA ist daf&uuml;r ein pr&auml;gnantes Beispiel. Die Erz&auml;hlung vom &bdquo;Zusammenbruch&ldquo; verdeckt au&szlig;erdem die Rolle internationaler Akteure, deren Zusammenarbeit mit libyschen Beh&ouml;rden diese Strukturen h&auml;ufig eher stabilisiert als infrage stellt.</p>
<p><strong>4. Internationale Akteure, insbesondere in Europa, haben libysche Akteure im Namen der Migrationskontrolle finanziert, ausgebildet oder anderweitig unterst&uuml;tzt &ndash; obwohl die Misshandlungen in den Haftanstalten seit Langem dokumentiert sind. In welchem Ausma&szlig; haben diese Politiken zu genau jenen Gewaltstrukturen beigetragen, die nun in Verfahren wie dem gegen El Hishri untersucht werden?</strong></p>
<p>Europ&auml;ische Migrations- und Grenzschutzpolitik ist zentral, um zu verstehen, warum so viele Migrantinnen, Migranten und Gefl&uuml;chtete in Mitiga und anderen Haftanstalten in Libyen landeten und anschlie&szlig;end misshandelt wurden.</p>
<p>Seit Jahren tragen EU-Mitgliedstaaten, europ&auml;ische Institutionen und Beh&ouml;rden wie Frontex dazu bei, ein System der R&uuml;ckf&uuml;hrungen nach Libyen aufzubauen und aufrechtzuerhalten. Dahinter steht ein umfassenderes Ziel: &Uuml;berfahrten nach Europa bereits in Libyen zu unterbinden. Seit 2016 haben sie die sogenannte libysche K&uuml;stenwache verst&auml;rkt unterst&uuml;tzt &ndash; durch finanzielle Mittel, Patrouillenboote, Ausr&uuml;stung, Ausbildung, &Uuml;berwachung und die Weitergabe der Koordinaten von Booten in Seenot. Dadurch konnten libysche Akteure Menschen auf See aufgreifen und zwangsweise in genau jenes Haftsystem zur&uuml;ckbringen und ausbeuten, das nun im Fall El Hishri im Fokus steht.</p>
<p>In einer umfassenden Eingabe an den IStGH argumentierte das ECCHR 2022, dass solche Abfangaktionen und erzwungenen R&uuml;ckf&uuml;hrungen den Tatbestand des Verbrechens gegen die Menschlichkeit der schweren Freiheitsberaubung erf&uuml;llen. F&uuml;r diese Taten tr&uuml;gen hochrangige Vertreter der EU und ihrer Mitgliedstaaten Mitverantwortung. F&uuml;r viele der am Verfahren beteiligten migrantischen und gefl&uuml;chteten Opfer ist es entscheidend, dass der Prozess auch sichtbar macht, wie europ&auml;ische Politik zu den Misshandlungen beitrug, die sie in Mitiga erlitten haben. Das zeigte sich deutlich w&auml;hrend und im Umfeld des Verfahrens zur Best&auml;tigung der Anklage: Viele Betroffene machten darauf aufmerksam, dass europ&auml;isch unterst&uuml;tzte Abfangaktionen sie und andere direkt in genau jenes Haftzentrum zur&uuml;ckgebracht hatten, das nun vor dem Gericht verhandelt wird.</p>
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<p><strong>5. &Uuml;ber den Tellerrand des Gerichtssaals hinaus gedacht: Wie w&uuml;rde echte Rechenschaft in Libyen aussehen und gibt es unter den aktuellen politischen Bedingungen &uuml;berhaupt einen realistischen Weg dorthin?</strong></p>
<p>Sinnvolle Strafverfolgung setzt immer voraus, dass &Uuml;berlebende und Opfer wirksam beteiligt werden und die n&ouml;tige Unterst&uuml;tzung erhalten, um solche Prozesse mitzugestalten. Ein Gerichtsverfahren kann individuelle Verantwortung feststellen. Gerechtigkeit verlangt aber mehr: Wahrheit, Anerkennung, Entsch&auml;digung, Schutz und politische Ver&auml;nderungen, die verhindern, dass dasselbe System fortlaufend neue Opfer hervorbringt. Bis heute kontrolliert RADA weiterhin das Mitiga-Gef&auml;ngnis. Es bleibt also noch viel zu tun.</p>
<p>Gleichzeitig berichteten &Uuml;berlebende, die die Anh&ouml;rung gegen El Hishri verfolgt oder besucht hatten, dass sie ihnen neue Hoffnung gegeben habe, dass Gerechtigkeit m&ouml;glich ist. Dieser Hoffnung m&uuml;ssen nun weitere Schritte folgen: fortgesetzte Ermittlungen der Anklagebeh&ouml;rde des IStGH &ndash; auch zu Verbrechen in Ostlibyen sowie zur Verantwortung von EU- und Mitgliedstaatenvertreter*innen f&uuml;r Verbrechen gegen Migrantinnen, Migranten und Gefl&uuml;chtete, insbesondere f&uuml;r jene schwere Freiheitsberaubung, die bereits mit dem Abfangen auf See und der R&uuml;ckf&uuml;hrung nach Libyen beginnt. Ebenso braucht es die vollst&auml;ndige Zusammenarbeit Libyens und der Vertragsstaaten des IStGH bei der Vollstreckung von Haftbefehlen und der &Uuml;berstellung von Verd&auml;chtigen nach Den Haag, tats&auml;chliche politische Ver&auml;nderungen in Libyen und Europa sowie anhaltende Unterst&uuml;tzung f&uuml;r zivilgesellschaftliche Initiativen, insbesondere von den &Uuml;berlebenden selbst gef&uuml;hrte, die diesen Schritt &uuml;berhaupt erst m&ouml;glich gemacht haben.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
</div>
<h2>Editor&rsquo;s Pick</h2>
<p>von MAXIM B&Ouml;NNEMANN</p>
<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-240x300.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-120x150.jpg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-200x250.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-240x300.jpg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-400x500.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-600x750.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-800x1000.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-820x1024.jpg 820w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1200x1499.jpg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1229x1536.jpg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1639x2048.jpg 1639w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348.jpg 1920w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-120x150.jpg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-200x250.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-240x300.jpg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-400x500.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-600x750.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-800x1000.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-820x1024.jpg 820w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1200x1499.jpg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1229x1536.jpg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1639x2048.jpg 1639w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348.jpg 1920w" sizes="(max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>Was hei&szlig;t es, unter der Diktatur der Hamas aufzuwachsen? Hamza Abu Howidy ist 1997 in Gaza geboren und dort zur Schule gegangen. Die Ideologie und Gewalt des Regimes durchziehen alle Bereiche der Gesellschaft &ndash; von den Stra&szlig;en der Nachbarschaft &uuml;ber Klassenzimmer und H&ouml;rs&auml;le. Kritische Fragen werden geahndet und wer sich dennoch traut, gegen das islamistische Regime auf die Stra&szlig;e zu gehen, wird aufgegriffen und inhaftiert. Auch Hamza Abu Howidy landet in den Gef&auml;ngniszellen der Hamas, nachdem er an einer Demonstration teilgenommen hat. Nach wiederholter Inhaftierung und Folter gelingt Abu Howidy die Flucht nach Europa, die ihn schlie&szlig;lich nach Deutschland f&uuml;hrt. In diesem Buch erz&auml;hlt er vom Alltag in der Hamas-Diktatur, von Liebe, Mut und Widerstand, und von seiner Einsamkeit als pal&auml;stinensischer Dissident, der sich nicht nur gegen die Hamas stellt, sondern auch die Kriegsverbrechen der israelischen Regierung kritisiert. &bdquo;Muscheln am Strand von Gaza&ldquo; ist vieles zugleich: Augenzeugenbericht, Kindheitserz&auml;hlung, vor allem aber ein fantastisch erz&auml;hltes Buch &uuml;ber den unstillbaren Drang nach Freiheit.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<h2>Die Woche auf dem Verfassungsblog</h2>
<p>zusammengefasst von EVA MARIA BREDLER</p>
<p>Manche Gesetze sind Untote &ndash; ihr Anwendungsbereich ist l&auml;ngst weggefallen, aber tot sind sie doch nicht. Frankreich hat erst gestern einem solchen Untoten die letzte Ruhe verpasst: Ganze 178 Jahre nachdem Frankreich die Sklaverei abgeschafft hatte, hob die Nationalversammlung den Code Noir <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/may/28/france-votes-code-noir-slavery-law-colonialism" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">einstimmig auf</a>. Dieses untote Gesetz verwandelte Menschen in Unmenschliches: in Eigentum. Unglaublich, dass erst jetzt der Spuk vorbei ist.</p>
<p>Im <strong>indonesischen Strafrecht</strong> spukt es zum Gl&uuml;ck weniger, aber dennoch ein bisschen. Zwei Jahrzehnte lang baute das Verfassungsgericht Normen ab, die willk&uuml;rliche Strafverfolgung erm&ouml;glichten. Seit Januar 2026 gelten neue Straf- und Strafprozessgesetze. Damit dehnt der Gesetzgeber die Staatsmacht aus und belebt einst begrabene Verfassungskonflikte wieder, kritisiert <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/criminal-code-indonesia-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SIMON BUTT</a> (EN).</p>
<p>Auch in <strong>Peru</strong> greift das Parlament nach der Macht. Die Stichwahl am 7. Juni entscheidet zwischen Keiko Fujimori und Roberto S&aacute;nchez. Doch das Amt hat an Macht verloren: Das Parlament hat seit 2020 vier Pr&auml;sidenten abgesetzt und die Verfassung umgeschrieben, um einen m&auml;chtigen neuen Senat einzuf&uuml;hren, der am 28. Juli seine Arbeit aufnimmt. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/peru-parliament/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">RODRIGO MARUY</a> (EN) beschreibt diesen Senat als &bdquo;constitutionally anti-constitutional&ldquo;: Seine Befugnisse untergruben systematisch genau jene Gewaltenteilung, die der liberale Konstitutionalismus sch&uuml;tzen soll.</p>
<p>In Deutschland streitet man w&auml;hrenddessen &uuml;ber die Macht der Exekutive &ndash; genauer: &uuml;ber die des Verfassungsschutzes. Laut VG Berlin durfte der Verfassungsschutz die &bdquo;<strong>J&uuml;dische Stimme</strong> f&uuml;r gerechten Frieden in Nahost&rdquo; in seinem Bericht nicht als extremistisch bezeichnen. F&uuml;r <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/verfassungsschutzbericht-judische-stimme/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MALTE STEMKOWITZ</a> (DE) zeigt der Fall: Der Verfassungsschutz bewegt sich auf einem schmalen Grat &ndash; dem zwischen noch Worten und schon Taten &ndash; und das Verwaltungsgericht Berlin beweise hier Sensibilit&auml;t statt Nervosit&auml;t.</p>
<p>Nervosit&auml;t beherrschte dagegen zwei <strong>Richter:innenwahlen</strong>: Das Scheitern von Frauke Brosius-Gersdorfs Kandidatur f&uuml;r das Bundesverfassungsgericht und die historische Ablehnung von Jorge Messias f&uuml;r den brasilianischen Obersten Gerichtshof. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/politicagem-court-elections/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">DIEGO PLATZ PEREIRA</a> (DE) sieht das Problem nicht in der Politisierung der Wahl als solcher, sondern in dem, was Brasilianer:innen <em>politicagem</em> nennen &ndash; die Unterordnung der Richterauswahl unter kurzfristige Wahlkampflogik.</p>
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<p><em>Die Bewerbungsfrist endet am <strong>10.6.2026</strong>. Weitere Informationen finden Sie <a href="https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/48794764/FB01___Rechtswissenschaft" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a>.</em></p>
<p>+++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>Was auf eine langfristige Wahlniederlage folgt, beobachtet Europa gerade gespannt in <strong>Ungarn</strong>. Nach der Abwahl von Fidesz will die neue F&uuml;hrung nun die Demokratie wiederherstellen. Eines der gr&ouml;&szlig;ten Hindernisse sind dabei die verfassungsrechtlichen Befugnisse von Pr&auml;sident Tam&aacute;s Sulyok. Je nach deren Einsatz drohe eine Verfassungskrise, warnt <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vetoing-the-president/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">G&Aacute;BOR M&Eacute;SZ&Aacute;ROS</a> (EN).</p>
<p>Eine weitere Herausforderung, vor der Ungarn steht, ist finanzieller Natur: Ungarns neue Regierung braucht Milliarden an eingefrorenen EU-Mitteln &ndash; und zwar schnell. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/unfreezing-eu-funds-without-melting-the-rule-of-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">JOHN MORIJN und KIM LANE SCHEPPELE</a> kartieren die rechtlichen und politischen Hindernisse: L&auml;sst sich das Geld auftauen, ohne den Rechtsstaat dabei abzuschmelzen?</p>
<p>W&auml;hrend Ungarn den Weg zur&uuml;ck in die rechtsstaatlichen Bahnen der Europ&auml;ischen Union sucht, bleibt offen, wie seine Nachbarin, die Ukraine, dieser Ordnung beitreten kann. Friedrich Merz schlug nun eine <strong>&bdquo;assoziierte Mitgliedschaft&ldquo; f&uuml;r die Ukraine</strong> vor &ndash; einen Zwischenschritt auf dem Weg zur Vollmitgliedschaft. Doch das Modell wirft einige rechtliche Bedenken auf, so <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/towards-an-associate-membership-status-for-ukraine/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">PETER VAN ELSUWEGE und ROMAN PETROV</a> (EN) &ndash; allen voran die Annahme, dass sich ein solcher Status ohne Ratifizierung eines Beitrittsvertrags oder &Auml;nderung der EU-Vertr&auml;ge gew&auml;hren lie&szlig;e.</p>
<p>In letzter Zeit h&auml;ufen sich die Berichte &uuml;ber Drohnenschw&auml;rme, die &uuml;ber Bundeswehrgel&auml;nde und kritische Infrastruktur hinwegziehen. Darf die Bundeswehr solche <strong>Sp&auml;hdrohnen</strong> &uuml;ber ziviler Infrastruktur abwehren? Nein, sagt <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/drohnenabwehr-grundgesetz-verteidigung/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">FELIX LANGE</a> (DE) &ndash; daf&uuml;r sei nach dem Grundgesetz die Polizei zust&auml;ndig.</p>
<p>Der <strong><em>Digital Fairness Act</em></strong>, den die Kommission Ende 2026 vorlegen will, wird in der Sprache des Verbraucherschutzes verfasst. F&uuml;r Erwachsene tr&auml;gt diese Sprache &ndash; doch f&uuml;r Kinder nicht, wie <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/specifying-a-fourth-integrity/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CHAYMA DRIRA</a> (EN) argumentiert: Das Gesetz brauche eine vierte Schutzebene pers&ouml;nlicher Integrit&auml;t f&uuml;r Minderj&auml;hrige.</p>
<p>Kinder gehen auch im derzeitigen Schulsystem unter, vor allem Kinder mit F&ouml;rderbedarf. Das Bundesministerium will die Eingliederungshilfe grundlegend reformieren &ndash; und legt einen Entwurf vor, der den bisherigen individuellen Rechtsanspruch auf <strong>Schulbegleitung</strong> weitgehend abschafft. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-eingliederungshilfe/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MICHAEL WRASE</a> (DE) erkl&auml;rt, warum der Entwurf die UN-BRK und das Recht auf schulische Bildung verletzt &ndash; und schl&auml;gt eine Alternativformulierung vor.</p>
<p>Die Schule ist der Ort, an dem wir zuerst staatliche Kontrolle erfahren &ndash; und an dem soziale Ungleichheit besonders sichtbar wird: Wer hat Zugang zu welcher Schule, welcher Bildung, welcher Zukunft? F&uuml;r <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/schwarzfahren-fahren-ohne-fahrschein-strafrecht/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SUSANNE BECK</a> (DE) wirft der Streit um das <strong>Schwarzfahren</strong> ganz &auml;hnliche Fragen auf: &sect; 265a StGB stabilisiere eine soziale Zugangsordnung &ndash; mit weitreichenden Folgen f&uuml;r Sichtbarkeit, Zugeh&ouml;rigkeit und die Erfahrung staatlicher Kontrolle.</p>
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<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-194x300.png" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-97x150.png 97w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-194x300.png 194w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-200x309.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion.png 393w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-97x150.png 97w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-194x300.png 194w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion-200x309.png 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICJ-Advisory-opinion.png 393w" sizes="(max-width: 194px) 100vw, 194px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p><a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/book/the-2024-icj-advisory-opinion-on-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em><strong>The 2024 ICJ Advisory Opinion on the Occupied Palestinian Territory</strong></em></a></p>
<p><em>Edited by Kai Ambos</em></p>
<p><em>&ldquo;This volume includes a wealth of expert analyses of this historic ICJ opinion. Readers will be struck equally by the range of perspectives, by the nuance and insightfulness of the contributors&rsquo; reflections, and by the speed with which this book has been put together. It is a timely and important contribution.&rdquo;</em></p>
<p><em>&ndash; <strong>Tom Dannenbaum, Stanford Law School</strong></em></p>
<p>Get your copy&nbsp;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/book/the-2024-icj-advisory-opinion-on-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>here</em></a>&nbsp;&ndash; as always, Open Access!</p>
<p>+++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p>Diese Woche haben wir au&szlig;erdem unser Symposium &bdquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/category/debates/on-law-and-politics-in-the-hungarian-transition-debates/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><strong>On Law and Politics in the Hungarian Transition</strong></a>&ldquo; (EN) fortgesetzt. Nach sechs Jahren staatlich gesteuerten Rundfunks muss Ungarns Medienregulierung von vorn beginnen &ndash; <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/on-the-renewal-of-media-regulation/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">BERN&Aacute;T T&Ouml;R&Ouml;K</a> argumentiert, dass daf&uuml;r nicht nur neue Regeln n&ouml;tig seien, sondern auch ein echter Wandel der institutionellen Kultur. Und weil Ungarns Gerichte noch immer mit Orb&aacute;ns Richter:innen besetzt sind, r&auml;t <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/fixing-the-hungarian-bench/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">DAVID KOSA&#344;</a> Magyar dazu, neue Wege zu gehen: Ernennungsverfahren umstrukturieren, die Macht der Gerichtspr&auml;sident:innen begrenzen, eine Justiz aufbauen, die Vertrauen verdient.</p>
<p>Kosa&#345;s Untertitel m&ouml;chte ich Ihnen gerne ins Wochenende mitgeben, denn er gilt nicht nur f&uuml;r ungarische Pr&auml;sidenten, sondern auch f&uuml;r Grillrezepte und das Sonntagsoutfit: <em>Don&rsquo;t</em><em> Imitate &ndash; Innovate! </em></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<p>Das war&rsquo;s f&uuml;r diese Woche.</p>
<div>
<p>Ihnen alles Gute!</p>
<p>Ihr</p>
<p>Verfassungsblog-Team</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><em>Wenn Sie das&nbsp;<strong>w&ouml;chentliche Editorial</strong>&nbsp;als E-Mail zugesandt bekommen wollen, k&ouml;nnen Sie es&nbsp;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hier</a> bestellen.</em></p>
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<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/haftsystem-libyen-istgh/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&bdquo;Das Haftsystem ist in Libyen zu einer Industrie geworden&ldquo;</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-29T16:27:02+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Allison West</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-29T16:27:02+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="detention"/>

	<category term="eu migration policy"/>

	<category term="icc"/>

	<category term="kolumne"/>

	<category term="libyen"/>

	<category term="lybia"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-29:/289066</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/detention-libya-icc/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">“Detention Has Become an Industry in Libya”</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>In May 2026, the International Criminal Court concluded its confirmation of charges hearing against...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<div>
<p>In May 2026, the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/libya/el-hishri" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">International Criminal Court concluded its confirmation of charges hearing</a> against Khaled El Hishri, a former senior officer of Libya&rsquo;s Special Deterrence Force (SDF/RADA). Fifteen years after the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/situations/libya" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">UN Security Council</a> referred the situation in Libya to the Court, he is the first suspect to appear in The Hague. That gap says as much about Libya and EU migration policies as it does about the ICC: a landscape where lines of authority are perpetually blurred, and where the question of who can be held responsible is often inseparable from the question of who constitutes &ldquo;the state&rdquo; and what role European actors play.</p>
<p>German authorities arrested El Hishri in July 2025 and transferred him to the ICC in December of that year. While the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/libya/el-hishri" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">charges</a> are directed at an individual for acts committed at Tripoli&rsquo;s Mitiga prison between 2014 and 2020, they emerge from a system that is much harder to disentangle. Mitiga was formally recognized as part of Libya&rsquo;s detention system while effectively controlled by an armed group with its own chain of command and economic interests.</p>
<p>From that perspective, Mitiga offers a particularly revealing example of how power has operated in Libya since 2011. If anything, the El Hishri case forces a more uncomfortable question than whether accountability is possible: accountability for what kind of order and who evades accountability entirely? We asked Allison West, Senior Legal Advisor at European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights, ECCHR, to unpack the complexities of this case and situate it within the broader struggle for justice in Libya.</p>
<p><strong>1. The El Hishri case is the first from the Libya situation to reach the ICC since the 2011 referral &ndash; and it sits at the very intersection of state authority and armed group that defines Mitiga prison. Could you walk our readers through the case: what is alleged and why does it matter beyond this one defendant?</strong></p>
<p>El Hishri, referred to by one of his victims as the &ldquo;angel of death&rdquo;, is accused of 17 counts of crimes against humanity and war crimes, carried out principally against detainees at Mitiga Prison in Tripoli. He is alleged to have been a senior figure in the powerful Tripoli-based militia SDF/RADA, affiliated with the Libyan Presidential Council, and a top prison commander at Mitiga. Notably, the ICC Prosecution alleges that he not only ordered, oversaw or allowed harrowing abuses against men, women, boys and girls &ndash; Libyan and non-Libyan &ndash; in his leadership role at the prison, but that he also directly perpetrated all 17 counts of the crimes alleged, including torture, murder, rape and other sexual violence, enslavement and persecution. In other words, he led by example.</p>
<p>The case matters because, for the first time in 15 years of ICC investigation into Libya, a suspect has been surrendered to the Court and confronted with charges. For survivors, affected communities, and civil society organizations that have worked for years to expose atrocities at Mitiga and other detention sites across Libya, this is the first real opportunity to have such crimes legally characterized and adjudicated before an international court and to enable survivors to be heard and participate. Beyond punishment, this participatory and truth-establishing dimension of international justice is incredibly meaningful.</p>
<p>The case also matters beyond one defendant and one prison because Mitiga reflects broader patterns across Libya&rsquo;s detention system, where captivity has become a source of power and profit, especially with respect to Black African migrants and refugees who are enslaved and subjected to particularly severe forms of systematic exploitation and abuse. The Prosecution&rsquo;s intersectional approach in its charging is noteworthy in that it recognizes how crimes at Mitiga were shaped and compounded by factors such as race, nationality, ethnicity, gender, age, migration status, and other vectors of identity, whether actual or perceived.</p>
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<p><strong>2. The El Hishri case puts Libya back on the ICC&rsquo;s radar, but international attention to Libya often feels episodic, spiking with crises and fading just as quickly. From your perspective, what structural dynamics make accountability so persistently elusive, even when the evidence of atrocity is overwhelming?&nbsp;</strong></p>
<p>Evidence of international crimes in Libya, and often of the perpetrators behind them, has been well documented for years by survivors, Libyan and non-Libyan civil society, journalists, UN bodies, and human rights organizations. Knowledge is not the problem. Accountability remains elusive because powerful actors continue to profit, politically and economically, from these crimes.</p>
<p>Detention itself has become an industry in Libya and a key part of the country&rsquo;s post-2011 conflict economy. People deprived of liberty are commodified through extortion, forced labor, ransom, trafficking, or as a means of securing resources in the name of migration control. Many detention actors profit from both state-linked roles and overtly criminal activity. This is especially true of migrant and refugee detention, but it also affects Libyans.</p>
<p>Domestic accountability is complicated by the fact that alleged perpetrators are often part of militias or armed groups that operate through, alongside, or in place of state institutions. Even when victims report abuses, often at great security risk, the judiciary remains fragmented, frequently threatened, and largely unable to secure credible accountability. This makes recourse to the ICC crucial as a court of last resort.</p>
<p>Yet the ICC can only function if states cooperate. El Hishri is in The Hague because Germany arrested and surrendered him. By contrast, also in 2025, Italy arrested Osama Elmasry Njeem, another ICC suspect wanted for alleged crimes at Mitiga, but released and returned him to Libya. The ICC has since found that Italy breached its cooperation obligations, and ECCHR is now supporting a pending case before the European Court of Human Rights by a survivor of Elmasry&rsquo;s torture to challenge Italy&rsquo;s failure to cooperate. For all of these reasons, accountability remains difficult, despite overwhelming evidence.</p>
<p><strong>3. When Libya is discussed in international legal and political debates, it is often reduced to shorthand: &ldquo;collapse,&rdquo; &ldquo;militias,&rdquo; &ldquo;detention,&rdquo; &ldquo;migration.&rdquo; Which of these dominant narratives do you think most distorts the picture of what is actually happening on the ground and what do outside observers systematically miss as a result?&nbsp;</strong></p>
<p>The most distorting shorthand is &ldquo;collapse&rdquo;, because it suggests that the widespread violence in Libya is chaotic or disorganized. Of course, Libya&rsquo;s authority structures have been profoundly fragmented since 2011. What outside observers often miss, however, is that, even in this fragmented context of ongoing armed conflict and multiple, shifting centers of power, there are structured systems of organized violence, including Libya&rsquo;s detention industry, through which different actors compete for influence, seek profit, and consolidate power. Mitiga Prison under SDF/RADA is a prime example of this. The &ldquo;collapse&rdquo; narrative also obscures the role of international actors whose cooperation with Libyan authorities often sustains these structures rather than challenging them.</p>
<p><strong>4. International actors, particularly in Europe, have helped fund, train, or otherwise support Libyan actors in the name of migration control &ndash; even as abuses in detention have been widely documented. To what extent have these policies contributed to the very structures of violence now coming under scrutiny in cases like El Hishri?&nbsp;</strong></p>
<p>European migration management and border control policies are key to understanding how many migrants and refugees came to be detained and abused in Mitiga and other detention sites across Libya.</p>
<p>For years, EU Member States, institutions and agencies such as Frontex have helped build and sustain a system of pullbacks to Libya, as part of a broader plan to prevent crossings to Europe through containment in Libya. Since 2016, they have increased support for the so-called Libyan Coast Guard, including through funding, patrol boats, equipment, training, surveillance, and the sharing of coordinates of boats in distress. This has enabled Libyan actors to capture people at sea and forcibly return them to the same detention industry now under scrutiny in the El Hishri case.</p>
<p>In a comprehensive <a href="https://www.ecchr.eu/en/case/interceptions-of-migrants-and-refugees-at-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">submission</a> to the ICC in 2022, ECCHR argued that such interceptions and forced returns constitute the crime against humanity of severe deprivation of physical liberty, for which high-ranking EU and Member State officials bear responsibility as co-perpetrators. For many participating migrant and refugee victims in the El Hishri case, it is crucial that this trial also helps expose how European policies fed into the abuses they suffered at Mitiga. This was clear during and around the confirmation of charges hearing, where they drew attention to how European-supported interceptions returned them and others directly into the very detention center we now see before the Court.</p>
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<p>++++++++++++++++++++++++++++</p>
<p><strong>5. Looking beyond the courtroom, what would meaningful accountability in Libya actually look like and is there any realistic path toward that in the current political climate?&nbsp;</strong></p>
<p>Meaningful accountability will always hinge on the effective participation of survivors and victims, who should be supported to drive such accountability processes. And while a trial can establish individual responsibility, justice also requires attending to more complex aspects, like truth, recognition, reparations, protection, and political change to guarantee the same system will not simply continue to produce new victims. To this day, RADA continues to control Mitiga Prison, meaning there is still much work to do.</p>
<p>However, survivors who attended or followed the confirmation of charges hearing against El Hishri <a href="https://www.ecchr.eu/en/press-release/civil-society-statement/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expressed</a> that it gave them renewed hope that justice is possible. That hope must now be matched by continued investigations by the ICC Office of the Prosecutor, including into crimes in Eastern Libya and into the responsibility of EU and Member State officials for crimes against migrants and refugees, including the severe deprivation of liberty that begins when they are intercepted at sea and pulled back to Libya. It must be matched by Libya and ICC States Parties&rsquo; full cooperation in executing ICC arrest warrants and surrendering suspects to The Hague; by real policy change in Libya and Europe; and by sustained support for the survivor-led and civil society efforts that made this step possible.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
</div>
<h2>Editor&rsquo;s Pick</h2>
<p>by MAXIM B&Ouml;NNEMANN</p>
<p><img decoding="async" src="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-240x300.jpg" alt="" srcset="https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-120x150.jpg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-200x250.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-240x300.jpg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-400x500.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-600x750.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-800x1000.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-820x1024.jpg 820w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1200x1499.jpg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1229x1536.jpg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1639x2048.jpg 1639w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348.jpg 1920w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-120x150.jpg 120w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-200x250.jpg 200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-240x300.jpg 240w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-400x500.jpg 400w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-600x750.jpg 600w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-800x1000.jpg 800w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-820x1024.jpg 820w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1200x1499.jpg 1200w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1229x1536.jpg 1229w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348-1639x2048.jpg 1639w,https://verfassungsblog.de/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/IMG_6348.jpg 1920w" sizes="(max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px" referrerpolicy="no-referrer" loading="lazy"></p>
<p>What does it mean to grow up under Hamas&rsquo;s dictatorship? Hamza Abu Howidy was born in Gaza in 1997 and went to school there. The regime&rsquo;s ideology and violence run through every part of society &mdash; from neighborhood streets to classrooms and lecture halls. Critical questions are punished, and those who nonetheless dare to take to the streets against the Islamist regime are picked up and imprisoned. Abu Howidy himself ends up in Hamas detention cells after taking part in a demonstration. Following repeated imprisonment and torture, he manages to flee to Europe, eventually making his way to Germany. In this book, he recounts everyday life under Hamas&rsquo;s dictatorship, stories of love, courage, and resistance &mdash; and the loneliness of a Palestinian dissident who not only stands against Hamas but also criticizes the war crimes of the Israeli government. &ldquo;Muscheln am Strand von Gaza&rdquo; (&ldquo;Shells on the Shore of Gaza&rdquo;) is many things at once: an eyewitness account, a childhood memoir, and above all a fantastically told book about the insatiable hunger for freedom.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<h2>The Week on Verfassungsblog</h2>
<p>summarised by EVA MARIA BREDLER</p>
<p>Some laws are undead &ndash; their practical force long gone, but never quite laid to rest. France put one such creature to rest only yesterday: a full 178 years after abolishing slavery, the National Assembly <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/may/28/france-votes-code-noir-slavery-law-colonialism" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unanimously repealed</a> the <em>Code Noir</em>. This undead law turned human beings into non-humans: into property. Unbelievable that the haunting lasted this long.</p>
<p><strong>Indonesia</strong>&rsquo;s criminal law has its own ghosts, if rather less dramatic ones. For two decades, the Constitutional Court dismantled provisions that enabled arbitrary prosecution. Since January 2026, new criminal and criminal procedure codes are in force. The legislature has used them to expand state power and revive constitutional conflicts once thought buried, argues <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/criminal-code-indonesia-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SIMON BUTT</a> (ENG).</p>
<p>In <strong>Peru</strong>, parliament has been reaching for power too. The presidential runoff on 7 June will decide between Keiko Fujimori and Roberto S&aacute;nchez &ndash; but the office itself has been hollowed out. Parliament has impeached four presidents since 2020 and rewritten the constitution to introduce a powerful new Senate, set to begin functioning on 28 July. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/peru-parliament/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">RODRIGO MARUY</a> (ENG) describes this Senate as &ldquo;constitutionally anti-constitutional&rdquo;: its powers systematically undermine the very checks and balances that liberal constitutionalism exists to protect.</p>
<p>In <strong>Germany</strong>, the dispute is over executive power: The Berlin Administrative Court has ruled that the domestic intelligence agency, the Verfassungsschutz, was not permitted to describe the <strong><em>J&uuml;dische Stimme</em></strong><em> f&uuml;r gerechten Frieden in Nahost</em> as extremist in its annual report. For <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/verfassungsschutzbericht-judische-stimme/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MALTE STEMKOWITZ</a> (GER), the case illustrates the narrow line the Verfassungsschutz must walk &ndash; between words and deeds &ndash; and demonstrates judicial sensitivity rather than nerves.</p>
<p>Nerves dominated two judicial nominations &ndash; and brought them down. The collapse of Frauke Brosius-Gersdorf&rsquo;s candidacy for the Federal Constitutional Court and the historic rejection of Jorge Messias for Brazil&rsquo;s Supreme Court. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/politicagem-court-elections/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">DIEGO PLATZ PEREIRA</a> (ENG) sees the problem not in the politicisation of judicial selection as such, but in what Brazilians call <em>politicagem</em> &ndash; the subordination of judicial appointments to short-term electoral logic.</p>
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<p>What follows long-term electoral defeat is precisely what Europe is watching in <strong>Hungary</strong>. Following Fidesz&rsquo;s loss, the country&rsquo;s new political leadership has pledged to dismantle the structures that enabled sixteen years of democratic backsliding. Yet one of the most powerful obstacles may be the constitutional powers of President Tam&aacute;s Sulyok. If he chooses to deploy them aggressively, Hungary could face an unprecedented constitutional crisis, warns <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vetoing-the-president/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">G&Aacute;BOR M&Eacute;SZ&Aacute;ROS</a> (ENG).</p>
<p>Rebuilding also costs money. Hungary&rsquo;s new government needs billions in frozen EU funds &ndash; fast. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/unfreezing-eu-funds-without-melting-the-rule-of-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">JOHN MORIJN and KIM LANE SCHEPPELE</a> map the legal and political obstacles to unfreezing them without melting the rule of law in the process.</p>
<p>As Hungary slowly finds its way back towards the European rule of law, the question of how its neighbour Ukraine might join that order remains unresolved. Friedrich Merz recently proposed a status of <strong>&ldquo;associate membership&rdquo; for Ukraine </strong>&ndash; an intermediate step towards full accession. The political inspiration is clear. The legal translation, as <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/towards-an-associate-membership-status-for-ukraine/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">PETER VAN ELSUWEGE and ROMAN PETROV</a> (ENG) show, is anything but: the proposal assumes that such status could be granted without ratifying an Accession Treaty or amending the EU Treaties.</p>
<p>In Germany, reports of drone swarms over Bundeswehr sites and critical infrastructure have been mounting. May the Bundeswehr intercept <strong>surveillance drones</strong> flying over civilian infrastructure? No, says <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/drohnenabwehr-grundgesetz-verteidigung/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">FELIX LANGE</a> (GER) &ndash; under the Basic Law, that is a matter for the police. This need not, however, amount to a gap in protection, nor does it require amending the constitution.</p>
<p>The <strong>European Digital Fairness Act</strong>, which the Commission will table at the end of 2026, is being drafted in the grammar of consumer protection. For adults, that grammar holds &ndash; for children, it does not, argues <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/specifying-a-fourth-integrity/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CHAYMA DRIRA</a> (ENG) and demands a fourth layer of personal integrity for minors.</p>
<p>Children are also being failed by the <strong>school system</strong>, especially those with special needs. The government now wants to reform the <em>Eingliederungshilfe</em> &ndash; Germany&rsquo;s statutory system of individual entitlements to support services for people with disabilities &ndash; and has tabled a draft that would largely abolish the existing individual right to school accompaniment. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-eingliederungshilfe/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MICHAEL WRASE</a> (GER) explains why the draft violates both international and constitutional law, and proposes alternative wording.</p>
<p>School is where we first encounter state authority &ndash; and where social inequality becomes most visible. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/schwarzfahren-fahren-ohne-fahrschein-strafrecht/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SUSANNE BECK</a> (GER) finds similar questions lurking in the debate over <strong><em>Schwarzfahren</em></strong> (using public transport without a ticket): its criminalisation does not merely protect property interests but stabilises a social order of access, with far-reaching consequences for belonging and the experience of state control.</p>
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<p><i>Edited by Kai Ambos</i></p>
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<p><em>&ndash; <strong>Tom Dannenbaum, Stanford Law School</strong></em></p>
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<p>This week, we also continued our symposium &ldquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/category/debates/on-law-and-politics-in-the-hungarian-transition-debates/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><strong>On Law and Politics in the Hungarian Transition</strong></a>&rdquo; (ENG). After six years of captured public broadcasting and silenced journalism, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/on-the-renewal-of-media-regulation/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">BERN&Aacute;T T&Ouml;R&Ouml;K</a> argues that rebuilding media regulation requires not just new rules but a genuine shift in institutional culture. And since Hungary&rsquo;s courts remain packed with Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s judges, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/fixing-the-hungarian-bench/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">DAVID KOSA&#344;</a> urges Magyar not to play tit-for-tat but to innovate: restructure appointments, limit the chief justice&rsquo;s powers, and build a judiciary that earns public trust.</p>
<p>The subheading of Kosa&#345;&rsquo;s piece makes for a nice send-off into the weekend: <em>Don&rsquo;t Imitate &ndash; Innovate.</em> Good advice for Hungarian presidents, Sunday outfits, and barbecue recipes alike.</p>
<p><strong>*</strong></p>
<p>That&rsquo;s it for this week. Take care and all the best!</p>
<p>Yours,</p>
<p>the Verfassungsblog Team</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><em>If you would like to receive the&nbsp;<strong>weekly editorial</strong> as an e-mail, you can subscribe&nbsp;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/newsletter/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.</em></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/detention-libya-icc/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&ldquo;Detention Has Become an Industry in Libya&rdquo;</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-29T16:26:48+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Allison West</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-29T16:26:48+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="detention"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu migration policy"/>

	<category term="icc"/>

	<category term="kolumne"/>

	<category term="libya"/>

	<category term="libyen"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-29:/289043</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/restoring-constitutional-justice-hungary/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Restoring Constitutional Justice in Hungary</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On 12 April 2026, Hungarian voters rendered their judgment on a political and legal regime that coul...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>On 12 April 2026, Hungarian voters rendered their judgment on a political and legal regime that could be described in many ways, but certainly not as a well-functioning liberal democratic constitutional order. Perhaps the most accurate description is that Hungary was neither a fully developed autocratic state nor a well-functioning liberal constitutional democracy. In short: it was a <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2022-0324_EN.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hybrid regime of electoral autocracy</a>. Among the many questions facing the new constituent power probably the most important one is what could be done to restore liberal democratic constitutionalism in Hungary and what to prevent a new autocratic one from emerging.</p>
<p>The distinctive feature&nbsp;of the Hungarian legal system of the last 16 years is that it has kept the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26455917" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fa&ccedil;ade of a liberal democratic constitutional order.</a> That said, laws and institutions have functioned to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/german-law-journal/article/illiberal-constitutionalism-the-case-of-hungary-and-poland/01DA5EB12D2734935C659B96CE012BFD" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">varying degrees</a> depending on the issue at stake.&nbsp;The formal elements of liberal democratic constitutionalism remain in place, but they operate differently from how they would under normal circumstances, thereby creating&nbsp;a &ldquo;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gove.12049" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Frankenstate</a>&rdquo;. Indeed, the explanation lies in the fact that <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/saving-the-european-union-from-its-illiberal-member-states-9780198954606?cc=hu&amp;lang=en&amp;" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">informal practices constitute the root of the &ldquo;suffocating&rdquo; nature of such regimes</a>. Still, laws matter. For this reason, considering the broader picture outlined above, it is necessary to address an institution that &ndash; although it possessed the legal means from the perspective of formal law, except for the competence constrains in relation to budgetary laws and substantive review of constitutional amendments &ndash; failed&nbsp;to prevent <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/what-is-rule-of-law-backsliding/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">rule-of-law backsliding</a> from happening: the Constitutional Court of Hungary (CCoH).</p>
<h2>About the CCoH in a Nutshell</h2>
<p>Right after the former constitutional majority came to power in 2010, it began reshaping the CCoH. As for its composition, the number of members was raised from 11 to 15; the nomination procedure was altered from parity to majority (but members have always been elected by the two-thirds majority of the National Assembly); the 70 years old retirement age was abolished; the term of office was raised from 9 to 12 years but without the possibility of re-election and the President is now elected by the National Assembly by two-thirds majority. &nbsp;In short: altering the framework by the former constitutional majority hollowed out the guarantees. As a result, 11 of the current members have been nominated and elected by the former ruling constitutional majority alone. During a brief period in which the constitutional majority was lacking, four judges were elected in 2016 with the support of a former opposition party. Now, three judges, including the President, would remain in office until 2037.</p>
<p>Considering these changes, one may already &ndash; and rightly &ndash; ask whether the CCoH is an independent and impartial institution that provides constitutional justice in all cases. Unfortunately, the answer is negative. At the same time, however, as is often the case in hybrid regimes, the picture is not entirely black and white. In fact, determining whether (constitutional) judicial review has become abusive is a rather <a href="https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/archives/53/3/abusive-judicial-review-courts-against-democracy" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">complex task</a>. Nevertheless, certain factors may be indicative, such as court packing, procedural irregularities in case handling, or abusive judicial reasoning. Regardless, similarly to the phenomenon of <a href="https://ir.law.fsu.edu/articles/555/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abusive constitutionalism</a>, what ultimately matters is that at the end of the day, the state of constitutionalism <a href="https://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/country/2025/Hungary" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">worsens.</a>&nbsp; Several authors (for example, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/constitutional-complaint-as-orbans-tool/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>, <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003355793-9/guarding-constitution-serving-politics-decline-hungarian-constitutional-court-zolt%C3%A1n-szente" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>, or <a href="https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/gj-2025-0028/html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>) have evaluated the case law of the CCoH from various perspectives and reached similar conclusions: it has failed in its mission.</p>
<p>The CCoH&rsquo;s jurisprudence, however, cannot be evaluated without considering the situation in Hungary, as outlined above. Nor can it be assessed without regard to the legal changes affecting its structure. Thus, following the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62018CJ0824" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">contextual assessment</a> already applied by the ECJ, <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=ecli:ECLI:EU:C:2018:586#point65" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reasonable doubt</a> may arise in the minds of individuals concerning the independence and impartiality of the CCoH in politically relevant matters (as regards reviewing the merits of final rulings of ordinary courts in politically sensitive cases, see the <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/e90ed74c-7ae1-4bfb-8b6e-829008bd2cc6_en?filename=40_1_58071_coun_chap_hungary_en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2024</a> or the <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/524bd8d4-33ba-4802-891f-d8959831ed5a_en?filename=2025%20Rule%20of%20Law%20Report%20-%20Country%20Chapter%20Hungary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2025</a> Rule of Law Report).</p>
<h2>Restoring Constitutional Justice</h2>
<p>Addressing hybrid regimes through law is challenging, but not impossible. First, in the EU context, there is <a href="https://kluwerlawonline.com/journalarticle/Common+Market+Law+Review/57.3/COLA2020690" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 2 TEU</a>, alongside Article 7 TEU and the <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/eu-values-before-the-court-of-justice-9780198876717?cc=hu&amp;lang=en&amp;" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">procedures of the ECJ</a>. Second, the constituent power may pass a judgment on its predecessor <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/796754" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">if it has earned the right to do so</a>. However, at least in Europe, its actions are <a href="https://cjel.law.columbia.edu/files/2023/04/7.-LENAERTS-SPECIAL-ISSUE-PROOF.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">framed</a>. Considering the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62019CJ0896" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">principle of non-regression</a>, and <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/poland-opinion-on-the-draft-constitutional-amendments-concerning-the-constitutional-tribunal-and-two-draft-laws-on-the-constitutional-tribunal-adopted-by-the-venice-commission-at-its-141st-plenary-session-venice-6-7-december-2024-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the idea</a> that &ldquo;[r]estoring the rule of law means rejecting the root of its backsliding: the idea that the winner takes all, that the majority may rule disregarding the rights and legitimate aspirations of the minority&rdquo; suggest that not every direction is permissible, and certainly not every means are acceptable. These principles are also applicable to the future of the CCoH. In Hungary today, the constituent power shall aim at restoring liberal democratic constitutionalism to which Hungary has <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62019CJ0896" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">freely and voluntarily</a> committed itself within the EU framework, and, more narrowly, at restoring independent, impartial, and effective constitutional justice capable of constraining public power. The problematic question, however, is <em>how </em>this can be achieved.</p>
<h2>Options without Intervening with the CCoH&rsquo;s Composition</h2>
<p>A spectrum ranging from softer to harsher measures may be outlined. Importantly, the mentioned limits concerning the CCoH&rsquo;s competences must be lifted in every scenario. Measures that do not affect the current composition of the CCoH &ndash; but aim at enhancing the effectiveness of constitutional justice in all cases &ndash; could include the following ones (which could also be combined).</p>
<p>The new constitutional majority could seek the opinion of the Venice Commission concerning draft laws that do have structural significance for (restoring) liberal democratic constitutionalism or impact on the protection of fundamental rights. Thus, if the CCoH was to operate afterwards in a manner serving certain identifiable political interests contrary to the European consensus, it would have to bear the political cost of doing so.</p>
<p>The new constitutional majority could prescribe that the CCoH must follow the case law of the ECtHR when interpreting the Fundamental Law and, at the same time, Hungary could ratify <a href="https://prd-echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/Protocol_16_ENG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Protocol No. 16 to the ECHR</a>.</p>
<p>The new constituent power might overrule the decisions of the CCoH that <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13501763.2026.2655936" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">are at odds with European law</a>. However, such a move is only acceptable &ndash; and this would be the major difference compared to the previous regime &ndash; if such a breach can be established without a reasonable doubt. Also, this cannot be exercised on a regular basis.</p>
<h2>Options that Intervene with the CCoH&rsquo;s Composition</h2>
<p>Normally, the irremovability of judges is a cornerstone of the rule of law. Under EU law, it stems from Article 19(1) TEU and <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62018CJ0619" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in the view of the ECJ</a>, &ldquo;[w]hile it is not wholly absolute, there can be no exceptions to that principle unless they are warranted by legitimate and compelling grounds, subject to the principle of proportionality.&rdquo; The ECtHR, <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-206582" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">following the lead of the ECJ</a>, <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-229606" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">has taken</a> basically the same stance. It is also clear that Article 19(1) TEU <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62023CJ0448" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">applies to the CCoH</a>. Moreover, should any measures affect the retirement age, <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62012CJ0286" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">anti-discrimination law</a> would also become relevant.</p>
<p>Second, Articles <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-163113" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">6</a>, <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-222138" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">8</a> and <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-163113" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10</a> of the ECHR may be considered. In relation to employment disputes concerning civil servants, the <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-80249" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Vilho Eskelinen</em></a> test should be recalled as it determines when Article 6 may not be applicable. Inapplicability only stands if national law expressly excludes access to a court, and that exclusion is justified on objective grounds in the State&rsquo;s interest. In connection with Article 8 and 10 ECHR, the tests of lawfulness, legitimate aim, and necessity must be met to find an interference acceptable. The ECtHR, concerning the dismissal of constitutional judges from office <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-222138" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">noted</a> that &ldquo;utmost caution and detailed reasons are particularly crucial with regard to the dismissal of Constitutional Court judges and in circumstances where the decision to dismiss them is taken by Parliament.&rdquo; It should also be recalled that the&nbsp;Venice Commission, in connection with the restoration of the rule of law<a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2025-002-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">, emphasises</a>: in such situations a holistic approach must be followed, especially when changes concern the composition of the courts; reforms should address systemic flaws; and they should not re-create the previous system, but establish a better one.</p>
<p>In view of these, there are basically four options as regards intervening with the current composition of the CCoH but only the last two ones might be in line with the European standards.</p>
<p>First, the new constitutional majority could simply replace one or more members. However, this move would not improve the situation; rather, it would apply the same winner-takes-all approach that characterized the previous hybrid regime.</p>
<p>Second, the new constitutional majority might <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungary-constitutional-repair/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">reintroduce 70 years retirement age</a> and as such, create vacancies. While this would mean returning to the pre-2013 regime, this option is not problem-free either. Lowering the retirement age may be justified, for example, by social policy considerations, implemented gradually. However, it has not been tested under European standards whether it is acceptable &ndash; proportionate &ndash; if it serves to counter previous manipulations with the composition of the court.</p>
<p>Third, the CCoH could be abolished altogether claiming that this model simply did not work in Hungary. Instead, the judiciary, or a chamber within the <em>K&uacute;ria</em>, could provide constitutional justice. While this option could be &ndash; in principle &ndash; justifiable on part of the constituent power, it must not be implemented without thorough evaluation and perhaps even a complete constitutional reset. Also, ineffectiveness stems from the attitude of the CCoH not from its competences, except for the mentioned limits. In any case, abolishing the CCoH and transferring the power of constitutional review to the <em>K&uacute;ria</em> within a relatively short time would most probably eliminate constitutional adjudication as we know it for the foreseeable future. As such, this seems to be a high price for the change in the composition of the CCoH.</p>
<p>Lastly, the constituent power may declare &ndash; considering the outlined contextual factors &ndash; that the CCoH, in its current composition, has failed in its task of providing constitutional justice in all cases and counterbalancing public power. As such, the composition shall be changed. In this scenario, the compliance with European standards depends on the <em>how</em>. To begin with, the <em>modus operandi</em> must not follow a winner-takes-all approach. The new composition would have to be structured with the involvement of the political opposition, perhaps through a parity-based nomination system or by electing members with a four-fifths majority in the National Assembly. As the opposition could refuse to cooperate, a carefully designed anti-deadlock mechanism should be introduced. For example, after two rounds, the threshold could be lowered to a two-thirds majority. Also, the nomination process could be diverse. Namely, some of the members could be nominated by a consortium of law faculties and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, some by the judiciary, and some by the National Assembly (in a way mentioned before). It may make this option even more justifiable if the four current members of the CCoH who were elected on a by-partisan compromise would not be removed. A staggering mechanism &ndash; most probably by a lot &ndash; should be added to not have vacancies of the whole institution at the same time. Moreover, the current members of the CCoH shall have the opportunity to get nominated. Also, the current members should keep their benefits for a sufficiently lengthy transitory period.</p>
<p>Lastly, it should be mentioned that under the CCoH <a href="https://hunconcourt.hu/act-on-the-cc/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Act</a> the plenary session decides on the exclusion of a member of the CCoH without the possibility of judicial remedy. This factor, in combination with the already elaborated justification, suggests that the <em>Vilho Eskelinen</em> test regarding the inapplicability of Article 6 ECHR <a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-229606" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">might be met</a>.</p>
<h2>Takeaways</h2>
<p>Restoring liberal democratic constitutionalism, and more narrowly constitutional justice in Hungary, is complex and challenging. Also, in a transition process after hybrid regimes <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/transitional-justice-after-hybrid-regimes/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">trade-offs are inevitable</a>. That said, it must be done but in line with European constitutionalism. Options can be put on a scale but one shall remember: the honest narrative is that the root of the problem is the current composition of the CCoH stemming from the winner-takes-all approach of the previous regime. The constituent power has the mandate to change the system but only for the better and only in certain ways. Taking everything into consideration, the lastly sketched possibility might be the way to go. Such a move has not happened in Europe but on the other hand, such a scenario has not occurred either. Under normal circumstances it would not be acceptable and again, the compliance with European standards ultimately depends on the <em>how</em>: the reform can only enhance the independence and impartiality of the CCoH and, as such, restore constitutional justice in Hungary.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/restoring-constitutional-justice-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Restoring Constitutional Justice in Hungary</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-29T10:48:12+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>László Detre</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-29T10:48:12+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="democratic restoration"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="european constitutionalism"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="hungarian constitutional court"/>

	<category term="hungary"/>

	<category term="on law and politics in the hungarian transition"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-29:/289044</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/three-readings-of-one-decision/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Three Readings of One Decision</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The dominant reading of the December 2023 unfreezing of funds for Hungary &ndash; most recently restated o...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The dominant reading of the December 2023 unfreezing of funds for Hungary &ndash; <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/unfreezing-eu-funds-without-melting-the-rule-of-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">most recently restated on this blog</a>, following Advocate General Tamara &#262;apeta&rsquo;s February Opinion proposing its annulment &ndash; describes that release as &ldquo;clearly a political ploy at European Council level to get Orb&aacute;n to lift his veto for support to Ukraine&rdquo;. The authors&rsquo; concern, written in the shadow of the new Hungarian government&rsquo;s request for accelerated unfreezing of the remaining frozen funds, is that the Commission must now avoid repeating the error: the mechanism, they argue, must be insulated from political bargaining if it is to retain credibility. Their diagnosis of what went wrong is sharp. Their assumption about what would constitute going right may be less secure.</p>
<p>The remaining choice is not between political and depoliticised enforcement. It is between different forms of politicisation &ndash; the Commission&rsquo;s de facto exercise of discretion under political conditions, or the Parliament&rsquo;s and Court&rsquo;s ex post correction of that exercise through legal duties read into the procedural form. That choice is now being made slowly, and through litigation, in favour of the procedural-judicial pole &ndash; a settlement that would establish the Court as the principal agent once it issues its final decision in late 2026. Whether that answer is right is contestable. That it is an answer to the question &ndash; not the restoration of a prior settlement &ndash; is not.</p>
<h2>The Background</h2>
<p>On 13 December 2023, the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6465" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Commission announced</a> that it would release &euro;10.2 billion in cohesion funds to Hungary that had been frozen since late 2022. The justification was technical: Hungary had passed judicial reforms in May 2023 addressing concerns about political interference in the courts, and the Commission concluded that the four super milestones related to judicial independence &ndash; <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/same-same-but-different/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">four of the twenty-seven such milestones</a> agreed in Hungary&rsquo;s Recovery and Resilience Plan &ndash; had been substantively met.</p>
<p>The timing was less technical. The announcement came on the eve of a European Council summit at which Hungary was expected to block the opening of accession negotiations with Ukraine and a &euro;50 billion financial support package for Kyiv. Viktor Orb&aacute;n left the room to allow the accession decision to pass. He vetoed the financial package the following night. Six weeks later, he withdrew the veto. German Chancellor Olaf Scholz publicly denied any linkage between the funds release and Hungary&rsquo;s eventual consent. Commission officials maintained the assessment had been driven by the legal merits of the judicial reforms.</p>
<p>The European Parliament did not accept this account. On 18 January 2024 it <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2024-0017_EN.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">adopted a resolution</a> condemning the release as premature and politically motivated. On 25 March 2024 it filed suit before the Court of Justice in <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-225/24" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Case C-225/24</a>, seeking annulment of Commission Implementing Decision C(2023)9014 on three grounds: manifest errors of assessment, breach of the duty to state reasons, and misuse of powers.</p>
<h2>The Opinion</h2>
<p>On 12 February 2026, Advocate General Tamara &#262;apeta delivered an Opinion proposing annulment. The Commission, she found, had authorised disbursement before the required Hungarian reforms had entered into force or were being effectively applied. Moreover, the Commission failed to address subsequent legislative developments weakening the judicial protections being credited. Finally, it had provided no public explanation for how it concluded that each condition it had set had been met. The duty to state reasons under Article 296 TFEU, she emphasised, exists not only to enable judicial review but to inform &ldquo;not only the Member State concerned but all EU citizens&rdquo; why public funds are being released.</p>
<p>The Opinion is non-binding. The Court will rule later in 2026. But the configuration the dispute has produced is already analytically significant: three EU institutions have articulated three incompatible interpretations of the same administrative act. The Commission treats it as technical assessment. The Parliament treats it as political bargaining. The Advocate General reframes the dispute in terms of legal justification and institutional reasoning rather than political intent.</p>
<p>These positions do not disagree about the facts. They disagree about what kind of act the Commission performed, and therefore about what standards properly govern it. The Commission&rsquo;s discretion under the <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/1060/oj" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Common Provisions Regulation</a>, on its own account, allowed it to judge sufficient what its technical services assessed as sufficient. The Parliament&rsquo;s position is that this discretion has limits the Commission cannot define for itself. The Advocate General&rsquo;s position is that the limits exist as legal duties &ndash; entry into force, demonstrated application, public reasoning &ndash; regardless of whether political bargaining occurred.</p>
<h2>The Dominant Reading</h2>
<p>It is the assumption that repays scrutiny: what would a release the critics could accept as non-political actually have looked like? The Parliament&rsquo;s accusation of disguised bargaining, the Advocate General&rsquo;s demand for fuller reasoning, and Morijn and Scheppele&rsquo;s call for stricter procedural integrity share a premise: that conditionality enforcement can be insulated from political discretion through stricter procedural discipline. That premise deserves more scrutiny than it has received. The December 2023 case may not reveal a Commission that strayed from the mechanism&rsquo;s proper functioning. It may reveal that discretionary flexibility was always integral to how the mechanism was expected to function under real political conditions.</p>
<h2>Discretion as a Constitutive Feature</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2020/2092/oj" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2020 Conditionality Regulation</a> reached the statute book through Qualified Majority Voting precisely because it offered something Article 7 could not: enforcement that did not depend on unanimous political will. What it offered instead was the Commission&rsquo;s discretion &ndash; authority to determine whether risks to the Union&rsquo;s financial interests warranted suspension, and whether subsequent reforms warranted release. The structure of the mechanism presupposed continued political judgement by the Commission rather than mechanically determinable review against fixed criteria. This discretion was not a procedural defect tolerated for political reasons. It was the institutional form that made the Regulation enforceable at all.</p>
<p>The December 2023 decision sits inside this design, not outside it. The Commission faced a borderline case: legislative reforms passed but unevenly implemented; an institutional context in which Hungary&rsquo;s continued blocking of major Union decisions had operational consequences for Ukraine policy; assessment criteria the Commission had itself set. It exercised the discretion the Regulation grants it &ndash; discretion the Advocate General now reads as bounded by procedural duties the Commission did not satisfy. Whether the exercise was wise is contestable. Whether it was structurally anomalous is not.</p>
<p>The Commission&rsquo;s decision itself, C(2023)9014, was not published as a reasoned act &ndash; a fact that illustrates the tension between the discretion the Regulation allows and the public justification later demanded of it. The procedural critique points to the absence of fuller public reasoning, to the timing, to the substantive gaps between paper reforms and implementation. Each of these observations is correct. But each presupposes that the Commission, exercising its discretion responsibly, would have produced a different result &ndash; a result that the critics could recognise as non-political. No outcome available to the Commission could plausibly escape political interpretation. Every disbursement decision under the Regulation involves judgement about the sufficiency of national reform, and every such judgement is made in a political environment that the Commission cannot pretend not to inhabit. The choice was not between political and technical assessment. It was between a politically defensible technical assessment and a politically defensible decision to continue freezing. The Commission chose the former. The procedural critics would have preferred the latter. Neither choice is procedurally pure.</p>
<h2>What the Advocate General Changes</h2>
<p>&#262;apeta does not demand the eradication of discretion. She demands its public exercise &ndash; reasoning capable of withstanding external scrutiny. The distinction matters. The Opinion does not return the mechanism to a depoliticised baseline; it requires that the political judgement embedded in every disbursement be made transparent. If the Court follows her, the mechanism will not simply become more procedurally disciplined. It will become institutionally different: more judicialised, more review-oriented, more dependent on litigation as a routine constraint on executive discretion. The Commission will be obliged to publish reasoned decisions capable of withstanding judicial scrutiny. Disbursement timelines will accommodate the possibility that any release may be challenged. The Court itself, through Article 263 actions, will become a recurrent participant in the application of conditionality rather than a residual reviewer of contested cases.</p>
<p>Whether this constitutes an improvement depends partly on what one believes conditionality enforcement is meant to achieve. A mechanism that requires Commission decisions to survive litigation by the Parliament will be slower, more cautious, and more procedurally defensible. It will also be less able to respond to the variable political conditions under which Member States actually reform &ndash; or fail to reform. The discretion that procedural critics treat as the mechanism&rsquo;s vulnerability is also what allows it to function in cases that resist categorical resolution. Constraining the former constrains the latter.</p>
<p>This is not an argument against the &#262;apeta Opinion. It is an argument against the assumption that the Opinion, if adopted, will restore a mechanism to its proper functioning. There is no prior state of proper functioning to restore. The mechanism&rsquo;s procedural form has always rested on political discretion. The Opinion, if it becomes law, will produce a different mechanism &ndash; one with different strengths and different vulnerabilities.</p>
<h2>The Tisza Test</h2>
<p>This matters now because the question is no longer hypothetical. The April 2026 Hungarian elections have produced a government that has campaigned on accelerated unfreezing of remaining frozen funds. The Commission faces, again, a borderline case: a government substantively committed to reform, but operating against still-captured institutional veto points, under a deadline that makes full demonstration of compliance practically impossible. The procedural integrity that Morijn, Scheppele, the Parliament, and the Advocate General have insisted upon would require the Commission to withhold release until reforms are not merely legislated but applied &ndash; by institutions that the new government does not fully control.</p>
<p>This is the precise dilemma the December 2023 decision tried to resolve, in the opposite political direction. The procedural critique that condemned the earlier release may now require the Commission to delay a release the same critics support on substantive grounds. The mechanism&rsquo;s stability under either outcome is unclear. What is clear is that the procedural form alone will not generate the answer. Some judgement about the political conditions of Hungarian reform will be made. The only question is whether the Commission makes it visibly, or whether it is made implicitly through litigation timelines and dotted-line institutional pressures.</p>
<h2>Coda</h2>
<p>Rule-of-law conditionality has not collapsed. It is functioning. What Case C-225/24 has clarified is a tension the architects of the 2020 Regulation either did not anticipate or chose to leave unaddressed: a single mechanism cannot indefinitely sustain both a politically responsive instrument of executive judgement and a procedurally disciplined object of judicial review. The fracture the case exposes is the moment at which the Union&rsquo;s institutions began choosing which of the two will prevail.</p>
<p>Neither pole is the apolitical one. They distribute political authority differently &ndash; the Commission deciding under live conditions, the Parliament and Court correcting after the fact through duties read into the procedural form.</p>
<p>Procedural critics may be right about the mechanism&rsquo;s instability and still mistaken about its nature &ndash; about what, exactly, they are trying to stabilise. The December 2023 case did not reveal a system deviating from its design. It revealed a design that always carried an unresolved question: in genuinely borderline cases, whom does the Union trust to exercise discretion? That question is now being settled, slowly and through litigation, in favour of the procedural-judicial pole. The case did not restore an old equilibrium. It forced the Union to answer one it had left open.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/three-readings-of-one-decision/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Three Readings of One Decision</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-29T10:05:23+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Joanna Demopoulou</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-29T10:05:23+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="advocate general tamara ćapeta"/>

	<category term="article 296 tfeu"/>

	<category term="case c-225/24"/>

	<category term="cohesion funds"/>

	<category term="conditionality mechanism"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="eu"/>

	<category term="freezing funds"/>

	<category term="hungary"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-29:/289026</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/politicagem-court-elections/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Problem Is Not Politicization</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Last year, the candidacy of Frauke Brosius-Gersdorf for the German Federal Constitutional Court (FCC...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Last year, <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/german-top-court-nominee-brosius-gersdorf-ends-candidacy/a-73558457" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the candidacy of Frauke Brosius-Gersdorf for the German Federal Constitutional Court (FCC) collapsed</a> amid an intense wave of public controversy and a conspicuous failure of coordination within the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) during the parliamentary vote. Last month, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/brazils-senate-rejects-nomination-lulas-solicitor-general-supreme-court-seat-2026-04-29/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the presidential nomination of Jorge Messias to the Brazilian Federal Supreme Court (STF) was rejected by the majority of the Brazilian Federal Senate</a>. This was historic: <a href="https://www.jota.info/stf/do-supremo/antes-de-messias-senado-rejeitou-apenas-cinco-indicados-para-o-stf-ha-132-anos" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the first such rejection in the last 132 years</a>. If the German episode surprised by its disarray, the Brazilian one shocked by its novelty.</p>
<p>The two cases differ in their details. Brosius-Gersdorf was reduced to her academic position on abortion, while Messias fell victim to a right-wing-dominated Congress unwilling to confirm another president ally in a court already under fire, given <a href="https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/colunas/conrado-hubner-mendes/2026/02/por-um-codigo-de-etica-so-de-sacanagem.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">recent controversies about the ethical conduct of several of its members</a> and its political influence.</p>
<p>Yet both cases have something important in common. Both elections failed after politicization dynamics destabilized long-standing informal political institutions which have historically enabled the justices&rsquo; successful election. The problem, however, was not politicization as such &ndash; court nominations have always required political compromise. The problem rather lies in the Brazilian intuition of &ldquo;<em>politicagem</em>&rdquo;: the political subordination of judicial selection to predatory forms of overpromoting public performance.</p>
<h2>Politicized Parliamentary Conventions</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title/9015/informal-institutions-and-democracy?srsltid=AfmBOooDlUwAb5UJ4jbC2h2fgp7vwZXiXCMPpe1zXukNqkBhmyqS7pMy" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gretchen Helmke and Steven Levitsky </a>define informal institutions as &ldquo;socially shared rules, usually unwritten, that are created, communicated, and enforced outside officially sanctioned channels&rdquo; (p. 5). In constitutional contexts, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/german-law-journal/article/constitutional-conventions-concerning-the-judiciary-beyond-the-common-law/BBEAEA435D5C3DB694E64B4CA8929FF5" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">they may take the form of conventions</a>: practices that generate normative expectations, <a href="https://www.academia.edu/19953489/Oran_Doyle_Conventional_Constitutional_Law_2015_38_DULJ_311" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bind in distinctive ways</a>, and <a href="https://levitsky.scholars.harvard.edu/publications/how-democracies-die" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">may nonetheless be crucial for sustaining democratic structures</a>.</p>
<p>But the existence of such conventions does not imply de-politicization. Parliamentary practices &ndash; such as the election of judges to the highest courts &ndash; are structured by politicized frameworks. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/9667/chapter-abstract/156780234?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Norms themselves have, as Neil MacCormick put it, an &ldquo;arguable character&rdquo;</a>: they are open to contestation in their interpretation and application. More importantly, parliamentary constitutional conventions often provide only a broad framework that requires further political operationalization. Their functioning depends on organization, compromise, and negotiation. This has been the case in both Brazil and the Federal Republic of Germany. The expectation that judicial nominees would ultimately be approved has always presupposed the political viabilization of candidacies &ndash; with significant differences during authoritarian periods in Brazil.</p>
<p>Indeed, high-stakes political compromise has long been part of the ordinary functioning of judicial nominations in both countries. In Germany, the election of constitutional judges depends on a two-thirds majority in the Bundestag or the Bundesrat<a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/11/4/962/698702?guestAccessKey=" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">, making cross-party agreement indispensable</a>. In Brazil, although the Constitution requires only an absolute majority in the Senate, <a href="https://www12.senado.leg.br/noticias/infomaterias/2026/04/conheca-os-indicados-para-o-stf-desde-a-constituicao" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">22 out of the 28 approved nominations for the STF under the current constitution passed with a majority of more than three-fifths of senators</a> &ndash; the same threshold required for constitutional amendments (Art. 60, par. 2 of the Brazilian Constitution).</p>
<p>Such politicized parliamentary conventions have endured largely due to persistent majoritarian preferences. They may partly be framed as expressions of constitutional culture, but this alone does not catch the full picture. There are at least two further explanations for this. First, there have long been compelling institutional and political reasons to avoid transporting political turmoil into judicial selection. Not only the pursuit of publicly esteemed and independent judiciaries may have played a role in this. The strategic politicization of other institutions or actors &ndash; rather than judges &ndash; may have been of more advantageous political use. Second, the maintenance of these models has presupposed a certain degree of adaptability over time in order to secure viable majorities. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-05703-9_22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The German model, for example, eventually incorporated nominations from the Alliance90/The Greens after the party became an established political force</a>.</p>
<h2>Politicization Gone Wrong?</h2>
<p>These, however, were not the kinds of politicization that came to jeopardize the candidacies of Brosius-Gersdorf and Messias.</p>
<p>In the case of Brosius-Gersdorf, politicization both stemmed from and contributed to reductionism. Her candidacy came to be largely reframed as a public dispute over her stance on abortion. What are often rather discreet processes of judicial selection for the FCC became unprecedentedly mediatic, and, often based on excerpts of Brosius-Gersdorf&rsquo;s academic account of abortion, public discussion gravitated toward a black-and-white assessment of her suitability. Still, the failure of political organization of the CDU in the parliamentary process proved ultimately decisive for the gradual burial of her candidacy. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395513335_Der_Krug_geht_so_lange_zum_Brunnen_bis_er_bricht_Die_gescheiterte_Richterwahl_von_Brosius-Gersdorf_und_die_politische_Kultur" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">It was the combination of reductive mediatic politicization and shortcomings in parliamentary coordination that led to the collapse of the candidacy</a>. <a href="https://www.lto.de/recht/nachrichten/n/lto-dokumentiert-erklaerung-im-wortlaut" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Before a second attempt at voting took place, Brosius-Gersdorf withdrew</a>.</p>
<p>The Messias&rsquo; case, in turn, reveals more ambivalent forms of politicization. On the one hand, the Senate can be seen as declining to continue a pattern consolidated under Bolsonaro and Lula. It primarily set a stop on electing allies of the current president. On the other hand, the predominantly right-leaning Senate also signaled how it plans to play the election game this year by<a href="https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/articles/c5ye0gk6pk2o" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> making it clear whom one should please to elect a judge for the STF.</a> The politicization of the judiciary became an electoral matter for all political actors. The Senate&rsquo;s problem with Messias was not really that he lacked &ldquo;notable legal knowledge and unblemished reputation&rdquo; (Art. 101 of the Brazilian Constitution). The problem was that he was Lula&rsquo;s candidate. Messias&rsquo; performance during the Senate hearings &ndash; including the emphasis on his evangelical convictions &ndash; can be read as an attempt to engage <a href="https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol.29-Issue12/Ser-2/E2912022429.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">with the recent increased politicization of religion</a>, though ultimately without success. His rejection sustains, and perhaps reinforces, broader instrumental narratives about a politically exposed STF, which has recently been in the spotlight regarding the conduct of its members and has been discussing the adoption of a code of ethics.</p>
<p>These episodes might seem to invite a straightforward conclusion: that judicial nominations need de-politicizing. The German experience, in particular, has often been praised as a role model of cross-party agreement that enhances both judicial independence and social perceptions of legitimacy of the Court. The Brosius-Gersdorf episode put pressure on exactly that model by creating uncertainties over how future selections of FCC judges will be conducted &ndash; and which candidates will be willing to subject themselves to potentially intense mediatic exposure. Yet the problem in neither case was politicization as such. Rather, specific pathologies of politicization shaped their problematic outcomes. In important respects, both cases fall under the Brazilian intuition of <em>politicagem</em>.</p>
<h2>Politicization Meets <em>Politicagem</em></h2>
<p>The Brazilian term <em>politicagem</em> (similar to &ldquo;politicking&rdquo;) refers, in a pejorative sense, to forms of self-serving confusion between electoral politics and public policies <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-66254-1_8" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">(EIR&Oacute;, 2017, p. 140)</a>. The term is not without conceptual difficulty, as the strong division it presupposes is rarely clear-cut in political practice. Political actors will often pursue public policies with an eye to their broader political positioning, which is ultimately decisive for electoral achievements. Political competition, after all, is essential to democratic life and cannot be wiped away from the reality of political action.</p>
<p>Still, <em>politicagem</em> captures an important intuition: that certain domains of political decision-making may call for intensive political engagement while remaining relatively preserved from predatory forms of overpromoting their own public performance. Judicial nominations seem to belong to this category insofar as they build one of the most central instances for the constitution of judicial independence and public trust in the judiciary.</p>
<p>The failed judicial selections of Brosius-Gersdorf and Messias became victims of <em>politicagem</em> in diverse senses. In Germany, far-right political actors consciously contributed to delegitimizing perceptions of the FCC by seeking political credit through <a href="https://www.mdr.de/nachrichten/deutschland/politik/analyse-brosius-gersdorf-richterwahl-bundesverfassungsgericht-102.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a highly aggressive campaign</a>. A campaign against both a candidacy and a judiciary that was feared to become unusually vulnerable to politicization. Individual CDU parliamentarians also opted to score points in public positioning by going public and surfing the electioneering wave of framing Brosius-Gersdorf&rsquo;s selection as a vote (of conscience) for or against abortion. In Brazil, <em>politicagem</em> surrounds a broader and more multipolar politicization of the judiciary for electoral purposes. This phenomenon is certainly multifactorial &ndash; and also connected to the questionable public political positioning of some STF justices themselves. In some ways, court packing increasingly risks becoming part of the ordinary political &ndash; and electoral &ndash; agenda. In this sense, <em>politicagem</em> may already have had a weighty milestone in the presidential pattern (under Bolsonaro and Lula) of nominating persons publicly perceived as close political allies. <em>Politicagem</em> then kept going with the Senate&rsquo;s dramatic break with a centenary Brazilian practice.</p>
<p>In both cases, truth be told, political conventions ultimately failed because of failures in political coordination &ndash; failures co-conditioned by <em>politicagem</em>. The primary loser is the judiciary; further losers are yet to be determined in the course of political developments. The virulent character of <em>politicagem</em>, already captured in <a href="https://rubi.casaruibarbosa.gov.br/bitstream/handle/20.500.11997/2737/Correio%20da%20Manha%CC%83%20-%20DE%20-%2019521953.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rubem Braga&rsquo;s criticism of Get&uacute;lio Vargas in 1952</a>, seems simply to have found new forms of survival:</p>
<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Is <em>politicagem</em> such a strong and terrible vice that wears down this sensitivity, destroys that minimum of prudishness, and reduces the honor of others &ndash; and ultimately one&rsquo;s own &ndash; to a mere card in the deck of maneuvers and conveniences?&rdquo; (translated by me).</p></blockquote>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>Court nominations will therefore continue to highly depend on politicization. They will further require cross-party compromise, negotiated support, and plural conceptions of the kind of judges a court &ndash; be it the STF or the FCC &ndash; ought to have. Electing judges is a political task, and the existence of courts that combine public legitimacy, high legal qualification, and judicial independence is itself a political achievement. At the same time, judicial nominations may benefit from less <em>politicagem</em>. The selection of judges should not become an arena for the pursuit of cheap political credit. Courts depend on public trust &ndash; and that trust risks being eroded when the political practices surrounding their composition become primarily instruments of short-term electoral advantage.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/politicagem-court-elections/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The Problem Is Not Politicization</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-29T07:00:31+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Diego Platz Pereira</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-29T07:00:31+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="brasilian supreme court"/>

	<category term="brasilien. supremo tribunal federal | rio de janeiro; brasília"/>

	<category term="brazil"/>

	<category term="brazilian supreme court"/>

	<category term="bverfg"/>

	<category term="deutschland. bundesverfassungsgericht | karlsruhe"/>

	<category term="elections"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="german federal constitutional court"/>

	<category term="politicization"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288978</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/the-power-of-purse-i-inter-branch.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">The Power of the Purse I:  Inter-Branch Transformations</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Charles I of
England did not call Parliament into session because he desired its...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p><span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span>Charles I of
England did not call Parliament into session because he desired its company or
because he valued its counsel.<span>&nbsp; </span>He called
Parliament into session because he desperately needed money and because, under
the Stuart Constitution, he had no other means of obtaining it.<span>&nbsp; </span>This requirement eventually led to the
ultimate check on his royal powers.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>How remarkable it
would be if the contemporary U.S. Constitution gave the President more
financial autonomy than an English constitution resting on a far more
absolutist, and overtly royalist, ideology.<span>&nbsp;
</span>This would be all the more remarkable in an era where Originalism is
ascendant:<span>&nbsp; </span>very few of the Framers were
royalists, and even fewer allowed royalism to slip into their public
communications.<span>&nbsp; </span>President Trump has not
yet reached the point where his powers clearly exceed those of Charles I, but
the degree to which he has wrested the Power of the Purse away from Congress,
and the scale of the changes within each branch of government in how fiscal
prerogatives are exercised, are quite remarkable.<span>&nbsp; </span>As someone once said in a somewhat different
context, if we wish to understand true power in Washington, we must follow the
money.<span>&nbsp; </span>This post discusses how the
President has wrested the Power of the Purse away from Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span>Tomorrow I will analyze how changes within
each branch have facilitated these changes.<span>&nbsp;
</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Logically, the
Power of the Purse has four components:<span>&nbsp;
</span>the power to say what revenues will be collected, the power to say what
revenues will not be collected, the power to say what funds will be spent, and
the power to say what funds will not be spent.<span>&nbsp;
</span>President Trump has significantly expanded presidential power in all
four areas.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>His most
conspicuous revenue expansion has been his unilateral tariffs.<span>&nbsp; </span>The Supreme Court <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/607/24-1287/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">struck down</a>
his sweeping &ldquo;Liberation Day&rdquo; tariffs on much of the world after they had been
collected for ten months.<span>&nbsp; </span>After
defiantly blasting the Court, including his own appointees, President Trump
then <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2026/02/20/us/trump-tariffs-supreme-court" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">imposed</a>
another sweeping set of tariffs under a different legal rationale.<span>&nbsp; </span>These, too, have been held <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/trade-court-strikes-down-trump-global-tariffs-imposed-after-supreme-court-loss/ar-AA22DIBe?ocid=BingNewsSerp" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">unlawful</a>
in a lower court, but the President seems intent on imposing a new set of
tariffs whenever he is prevented from imposing an old one.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Beyond this, the
President has obtained ostensibly &ldquo;voluntary&rdquo; contributions from numerous
entities outside of the federal government to fund his agenda.<span>&nbsp; </span>Companies seeking regulatory concessions from
the Administration, for example, have contributed heavily to building the
President&rsquo;s desired grand ballroom.<span>&nbsp; </span>When
state or local governments leverage regulatory approvals to obtain costly
concessions from private businesses, the Supreme Court has called them &ldquo;<a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/601/22-1074/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">exactions</a>&rdquo;
and <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/483/825/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">struck</a> <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/512/374/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">them</a> <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/570/595/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">down</a> as
unconstitutional takings of private property without just compensation.<span>&nbsp; </span>These are revenues.<span>&nbsp; </span>And under the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/3302" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Miscellaneous Receipts
Act</a>, they must be &ndash; but apparently have not been &ndash; deposited in the
Treasury and made subject to congressional appropriation.<span>&nbsp; </span>The Act specifically prohibits depositing
such funds in a bank.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>President Trump
also used the taxpayer-funded U.S. armed forces to replace Venezuela&rsquo;s
president with one who allows him to take a large share of the country&rsquo;s oil
revenues and place them in an account <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2026/05/05/world/trump-venezuela-oil-deals.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">controlled</a>
only by the President.<span>&nbsp; </span>Again, the
Miscellaneous Receipts Act applies. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Charles I had
little desire to forego revenues, but President Trump inherited a government
with a much stronger fisc &ndash; and seems quite indifferent to the fiscal position
he leaves to his successor.<span>&nbsp; </span>He therefore
has sought to reduce taxes on his affluent allies.<span>&nbsp; </span>Congressional Republicans shared this agenda
and enacted the <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/BILLS-119hr1enr/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">One
Big Beautiful Bill Act</a> last summer.<span>&nbsp; </span>Although
profoundly unwise, the Act raises no sweeping challenges to the constitutional
order.<span>&nbsp; </span>But President Trump has gone
farther by preventing the Internal Revenue Service from enforcing revenue laws
still on the books.<span>&nbsp; </span>Part of has come
through <a href="https://federalnewsnetwork.com/reorganization/2025/04/treasury-plans-to-cut-up-to-50-of-irs-enforcement-staff-20-of-other-components/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">slashing</a>
IRS&rsquo;s enforcement staff, leaving the agency hopelessly <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-26-108116.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">outmatched</a> against wealthy
individuals and corporations with complex tax situations.<span>&nbsp; </span>This operates not very differently from the <a href="https://www.icij.org/inside-icij/2025/03/after-mass-firings-the-irs-is-poised-to-close-audits-of-wealthy-taxpayers-agents-say/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">repeal</a>
of many Code provisions designed to curb upper-income tax abuse.<span>&nbsp; </span>Although the Code <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/7217" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">prohibits</a> the
President and his entourage from influencing tax enforcement actions, news <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/7217" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">reports</a> suggest that
the Administration may be contemplating the grant of audit exemptions under the
guise of settling litigation.<span>&nbsp; </span><span>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Quite apart from
the public funds he has kept outside the Treasury, President Trump has <a href="https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/how-trump-violated-the-law-to-pay-the-military" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">repeatedly</a>
<a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/04/presidential-appropriations.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">spent</a>
large sums from the Treasury contrary to law.<span>&nbsp;
</span>No apparent principle limits his willingness to disregard limitations on
appropriations.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>His cases against
the federal government, which a federal judge <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2026/04/24/trump-lawsuit-irs-00891894" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">flagged</a>
as potentially collusive, provide another means of accessing large amounts of
Treasury dollars without going through Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span>As I <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/a-ballroom-too-far-republicans.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explained</a>
earlier, the &ldquo;settlement agreement&rdquo; negotiated between Trump-controlled
plaintiffs&rsquo; lawyers and Trump-controlled defendants&rsquo; lawyers holds the <a href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/is-new-weaponization-compensation-fund.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">distinction</a>
of disregarding parts of each of the first three articles of the Constitution
(the Appropriations Clause, the Take Care Clause, and the Case and Controversy
Requirement) as well as one of the amendments (section 4 of the Fourteenth).<span>&nbsp; </span>The Justice Department&rsquo;s press release says
Acting Attorney General Todd Blanche has chosen to provide $1.776 billion to
this fund for paying the President&rsquo;s political allies without their proving any
of the facts that Congress has required for claims against the federal
government.<span>&nbsp; </span>But nothing stops the
President from directing Mr. Blanche to provide more funds without
congressional appropriation or to expand the purposes for which they may be
spent. </p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Although the
decisions to go to war with Iran and to take military action against Venezuela,
Cuba, and others are commonly discussed in terms of international relations,
they are also huge fiscal decisions.<span>&nbsp; </span>By
giving Congress exclusive authority to declare war, the Constitution ensures its
comprehensive control over the nation&rsquo;s finances.<span>&nbsp; </span>President Trump&rsquo;s disregard of this power
further arrogates the Power of the Purse.<span>&nbsp;
</span>At some point, Congress will have little practical choice but to pay for
the wars that were started without its authority.<span>&nbsp; </span>The cost likely would be sufficient to reverse
the devastating cuts to Medicaid and food assistance in last summer&rsquo;s One Big
Beautiful Bill Act, to establish a national child care subsidy program, or to
make meaningful progress in shifting our energy infrastructure away from carbon.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The final component
of President Trump&rsquo;s claiming Congress&rsquo;s Power of the Purse, impounding funds appropriated
by Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span>This may be best-known but least-understood
of the Administration&rsquo;s fiscal efforts.<span>&nbsp; </span>OMB
Director Russell Vought returned to office asserting presidential powers
unheard of since the Supreme Court unanimously <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/420/35/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">rejected</a> President
Nixon&rsquo;s impoundments.<span>&nbsp; </span>He followed that
up by freezing funding for many domestic programs.<span>&nbsp; </span>This global freeze was enjoin, withdrawn, and
replaced by numerous more targeted, if no more justified or lawful, freezes on
particular programs.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The picture at
this writing is complex and confused.<span>&nbsp; </span>A
few programs did indeed suffer devastating unilateral, lawless impoundments,
notably the U.S. Agency for International Development and the Minority Business
Development Agency.<span>&nbsp; </span>Others suffered narrower
but still significant <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/federal-budget/executive-action-watch?item=30496" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">impoundment</a>s.<span>&nbsp; </span>For still others, the Administration reported
funds obligated but found a wide variety of gimmicks to keep the money from
reaching its intended beneficiaries.<span>&nbsp;
</span>Some programs have seen their funds have been diverted to the
Administration&rsquo;s priorities.<span>&nbsp; </span>For others,
OMB has imposed practically unmeetable conditions that must be met before the
funds are spent.<span>&nbsp; </span>For still others, OMB
has delayed spending without clearly stating that it intends the delay to be
permanent.<span>&nbsp; </span>And in a wide range of
programs, the Administration has leveraged the threat of impoundments to <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/blog/the-trump-administration-is-engaging-in-increasingly-blatant-efforts-to-misuse-federal-funds" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">coerce</a>
state and local governments and private grantees in ways not authorized by
law.<span>&nbsp; </span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Litigation&rsquo;s
results have been mixed.<span>&nbsp; </span>The Supreme
Court has sharply curtailed the ability to bring effective litigation but has
not completely shut down potential recipients&rsquo; ability to sue.<span>&nbsp; </span>The procedural obstacles it has placed in the
way of litigants, and its resistance to allowing preliminary relief in funding
cases, has left the Administration a relatively free hand for now.<span>&nbsp; </span>But the Court has not clearly repudiated its
prior decisions limiting presidents&rsquo; ability to arrogate spending powers to
themselves.<span>&nbsp; </span><span>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The Power of the
Purse has by no means fully passed from Congress to the President.<span>&nbsp; </span>But the President&rsquo;s actions suggest few
obvious limits to his seizures of prerogatives the Constitution assigns to
Congress.<span>&nbsp; </span>It is difficult to identify a
significant fiscal policy that the Administration has desired that it has been
prevented from implementing.<span>&nbsp; </span>So far, at
least, Charles I would be most envious.</p>

<p><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><i>@DavidASuper.bsky.social
@DavidASuper1 </i></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T21:15:44+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (David Super)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T21:15:44+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288969</id>
	<link href="https://balkin.blogspot.com/2026/05/protecting-student-speech.html" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Protecting Student Speech</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Ronald C. Den Otter

My new book, Education in Democracy:The Importance of Free Speech in American P...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p></p><p><span>Ronald C. Den Otter</span></p>

<p><span><span>My new book, </span><i><span><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Education-Democracy-Importance-American-Schools/dp/0700641475/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Education in Democracy:The Importance of Free Speech in American Public Schools</a></span></i><span>, is about the value of student speech and the
dangers of censorship. Coupled with distrust of government, where school
authorities cannot be trusted to police student speech competently or fairly, I
make an autonomy-enhancing argument, contending that the exercise of free
speech rights by students is constitutionally required in the name of
respecting their autonomy, both as speakers (or writers) and listeners (or
readers). I also explain why this practice over time is conducive to the
development of the autonomous capacities that they will need as they approach
adulthood and democratic citizenship. Ultimately, I defend the perhaps
counterintuitive conclusion that constitutional protection for student speech
is more imperative when students are young and impressionable. Not in spite of
their age, but because of their age, there ought to be few limits regarding
what they can say or write outside the classroom, when they are on campus or
off campus using social media.<span>&nbsp; </span><p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span><span><span></span></span></span></p><a name="more"></a><span><span>At present, with respect
to student speech in public schools, U.S. Supreme Court decisions leave a lot
to be desired if one cares about not allowing students to be coerced into
silence out of fear that they will be punished for expressing what they happen
to believe. For free speech purposes, the merits of their beliefs are beside
the point. Moreover, since </span><i><span>Tinker</span></i><span>, which was decided in
1969, these decisions are not nearly as clear as they could be, leaving far too
much discretion and inviting selective enforcement. As Justice Thomas wrote in
his concurrence in <i>Morse v. Frederick</i>, &ldquo;students have a right to speak
in schools except when they do not.&rdquo;<a href="https://vifa-recht.de/C:/Dropbox/Attachments/Ronald%20C.%20Den%20Otter,%20BalkinizatonBlog.docx#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title="" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><span><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span>[1]</span><!--[endif]--></span></a><i> </i>Under <i>Tinker</i>,
school officials may only limit student speech if it is reasonable for school
officials to conclude that the speech in question will substantially disrupt
the educational environment, undermine school discipline, or violate the rights
of other students. While this decision is a vast improvement over subsequent
decisions, which curtailed the free speech rights of students, it still gives
school officials too much power to limit student speech that may be valuable.<i>
</i>That is so because it remains easy for school officials to allege that
student speech will threaten school discipline or be substantially disruptive. <p></p></span></span><p></p>

<p><span><span>In <i>Bethel School
District v. Fraser</i>, the Court allowed school officials to censor student
speech that was lewd and plainly offensive. This exception to <i>Tinker </i>implies
that a school could ban sexually explicit speech<i> </i>even when that speech
is somewhat political, which outside the context of public schools, would be
presumptively constitutionally protected unless it were, legally speaking,
obscene. On top of that, this decision could be read more broadly to authorize
school officials to censor student speech that they deem inappropriate or
offensive even if it lacks sexual innuendo. <i>Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier
</i>empowers school officials to prohibit speech in school-sponsored activities
that bear the imprimatur of the school, like the school newspaper, plays,
dances, and sporting events. This ruling would mean that a school might be able
to ban football players, who represent the school, from taking a knee during
the playing of the national anthem to protest police brutality, as long as the
sporting event qualifies as a school-sponsored event and the school can show
that the restriction on the player&rsquo;s speech is reasonably related to a
legitimate educational interest, such as teaching respect for the flag or the
police. Likewise, school officials, with different political views, probably
could ban the football team from wearing armbands that read &ldquo;Blue Lives Matter.&rdquo;
In <i>Morse</i>, the&nbsp;&ldquo;Bong Hits for Jesus&rdquo; case, the Court made another exception to <i>Tinker</i>,
ruling that schools could ban speech that advocates illegal drug use, prompting
Justice Thomas in his concurrence to propose that </span><i><span>Tinker</span></i><span> should be explicitly overruled. As Justice John Paul Stevens implies
in his dissent, this decision could be read more broadly as permitting some
viewpoint discrimination, which normally would be, without question,
constitutionally impermissible elsewhere. </span><i><span>Mahanoy</span></i><span>, which the Court decided several years ago, may seem like a long
overdue victory for student speech, but eight of the justices ended up protecting
a student&rsquo;s crude speech (and gesture) on social media when she was off campus,
in a parking garage at a mall on the weekend. <p></p></span></span></p>

<p><span>My objective is not only
to go much farther than the Court did in <i>Tinker </i>by spelling out why
almost all student speech should be constitutionally protected but to clarify
what the law should be. The clearer the legal rule or standard is, the harder
it will be for school officials to restrict student speech without adequate
justification and the harder it will be for judges to permit such restrictions
when they are litigated. That is not to say that a clearer precedent itself
could prevent school officials from restricting student speech that is
unequivocally constitutionally protected, yet it is to say that as much as
possible, the Court should make it more difficult for them to do so if they are
so inclined. For now, due to this lack of clarity in this area of First
Amendment law, those who have little sympathy for student speech can construe
the relevant precedents broadly and can emphasize some decisions over others,
allowing their own political preferences to determine whether the student
speech in question can be banned. In other words, a lack of clarity facilitates
viewpoint discrimination. After all, for many school officials and teachers,
their primary concern will be the enforcement of school discipline so that
understandably, it will be easier for them to do their jobs, including avoiding
controversy. However, that tendency is troubling when this discretion would
enable a school official to censor student speech that either is, or at least
should be, constitutionally protected, and most likely would be protected if
the speaker were an ordinary adult or a student off campus. <p></p></span></p>

<p><span>In making the case that
student speech should receive considerably more constitutional protection than
it has received in the past, I know that I will not come close to persuading
everyone, such as school officials and teachers who are on the front lines, so
to speak, and have a very difficult job to do. Nevertheless, I hope that what I
have to say will resonate with many of those who are on both the left and the
right of the American political spectrum. What I mean by that is despite deep
partisan differences, it may be possible to convince those who are on different
ideological teams that they have good reasons not to give school officials the
authority to censor so much student speech. Because school officials at a
particular school could be progressive or conservative, an individual has no
way of knowing in advance whether the political views that she favors --or
those of her children-- will be at risk of being censored if she were thinking
about the situation from an impartial standpoint. Each person should assume
that in the absence of constitutionally protecting almost all student speech,
her worst political &ldquo;enemy&rdquo; will be deciding which student speech can be
silenced. The best rule, then, would be to not empower school officials to
censor student speech.<p></p></span></p>

<p><span>One might believe that
Americans can learn about the importance of free speech in other places,
outside of school, when they are young, and to some degree that is true. But it
strikes me that a public school is an ideal place for such learning to take
place. First, about 90% of Americans still attend public schools, even when
home-schooling and private schools remain an option for some of them. Second,
students spend a considerable amount of their time in school during the
academic year where they must interact with others, some or many of whom may be
different than they are. Third, many of them will not attend college. Thus,
junior high and high school will be their only opportunity to be exposed to the
various dimensions of free speech in an educational environment. Fourth, when
it comes to free speech, there really is no substitute for learn by doing.
Although it is imperative that students learn about famous free speech cases in
their high school government course and discuss freedom of expression in the
abstract, I doubt that an experience in the classroom would substitute for the
actual experience of either expressing a political view about, say, healthcare,
the war on drugs, mass incarceration, or police brutality, or having to deal
with speech that one really disagrees with in face-to-face interactions. Fifth,
there are almost always non-censorious alternatives. <p></p></span></p>

<p><span>The most serious
difficulty with not protecting enough student speech is that it is terribly
inconsistent with the most appropriate understanding of modern free speech
doctrine and its underlying principles. That is an unjustifiable double
standard where restrictions on speech that ordinarily are not permissible are
allowed in an educational setting (where they would be on a college campus, for
instance) when at least arguably, free speech rights are even more important.
Once one can show that a public school is, for the most part, best thought of
as a kind of public forum for students, who have a constitutional right to
express themselves and others have a right to hear them, then it becomes much
more difficult to defend restrictions on student speech. When school officials
censor such speech, whether they realize it, they are indoctrinating them
instead of appealing to their rational faculties. At the end of the day, school
authorities must start acting within the limits of the First Amendment. <p></p></span></p><p><i><span><span>Ronald C. Den Otter, is Professor of Political Science, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. You can reach him by e-mail at&nbsp;</span><span>denotter@calpoly.edu.</span></span></i></p><p><span><br></span></p>

<p><span><p>&nbsp;</p></span></p>

<div><span><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br clear="all">

</span><hr align="left" size="1">

<span><!--[endif]-->

</span><div>

<p><span><a href="https://vifa-recht.de/C:/Dropbox/Attachments/Ronald%20C.%20Den%20Otter,%20BalkinizatonBlog.docx#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title="" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><span><span><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span><span>[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Morse v. Frederick</i>, 551 U.S. 393, 418
(2007) (Thomas, J., concurring).<p></p></span></p>

</div>

</div><br><p></p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T13:30:00+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>noreply@blogger.com (Guest Blogger)</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://balkin.blogspot.com/</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://balkin.blogspot.com/"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T13:30:00+00:00</updated>
		<title>Balkinization</title></source>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288942</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/criminal-code-indonesia-law/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Constitutional Disobedience by Statute</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Over its 23-year history, the Indonesian Constitutional Court has read down or invalidated provision...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Over its 23-year history, the Indonesian Constitutional Court has <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Constitutional-Remedies-in-Asia/Yap/p/book/9780367660697" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">read down</a> or invalidated provisions of Indonesia&rsquo;s colonial-era Criminal Code (KUHP) of 1918 and authoritarian-era Criminal Procedure Code (KUHAP) of 1981. These decisions sought to preserve constitutional rights of suspects, to curb the powers of law enforcement, and to ensure due process. On 2 January 2026, replacements of both codes entered into force.</p>
<p>The new codes are a particularly useful site for examining how the Indonesian legislature treats Constitutional Court decisions, a question I have considered in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/20/1/428/6583503?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">earlier writing</a>. The codes&rsquo; treatment of the court&rsquo;s jurisprudence falls into three patterns. Sometimes the Codes comply, codifying a decision. However, sometimes they override it by re-enacting a provision the Court struck down, thereby reopening constitutional conflicts that had already seemed settled. And sometimes they comply only in form, while other provisions of the same code hollow out the decision&rsquo;s substance. Overall, the pattern is <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/stories/article/lt69e02b0410e96/kuhap-baru-berlaku--apa-kabar-putusan-putusan-mk-yang-mereformasi-kuhap-lama/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one of cherry-picking</a>. The result is less a coherent reform project than a legislative reassertion of state authority.</p>
<p>Both codes now face a <a href="https://asianews.network/indonesias-new-criminal-law-meets-legal-pushback-in-constitutional-court/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">barrage of constitutional challenges</a>, many coordinated by pro-reform civil society organisations.</p>
<h2>Compliance</h2>
<p>The new codes do codify some Constitutional Court decisions that struck down provisions of the old. One example is <a href="https://www.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/putusan/130_PUU-XIII_2015.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 130/PUU-XIII/2015</a>. Article 109(1) of the old KUHAP required police investigators to notify the public prosecutor when an investigation into a suspect began (via a <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/klinik/a/apa-itu-spdp-surat-pemberitahuan-dimulainya-penyidikan-lt67fce6e81f58a/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Surat Pemberitahuan Dimulainya Penyidikan</em></a>, or SPDP), but set no time limit for that notification. In practice, investigators often delayed sending the SPDP, leaving suspects with a police investigation hanging over them, without knowing whether they would ever be prosecuted. The Court held that the absence of a fixed period violated various constitutional protections, including legal certainty (Article 28D(1)), read a seven-day time limit into the provision, and required that the suspect and the alleged victim be notified. Article 60(1) of the new KUHAP codifies that limit, though it omits the decision&rsquo;s expansion of recipients to the suspect and alleged victim.</p>
<p>A second is <a href="https://www.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/sinopsis/sinopsis_perkara_73_IPI%201-PUU-XI-2013.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 1/PUU-XI/2013</a>, on the &ldquo;unpleasant act&rdquo; provision. Article 335(1)(1) of the old KUHP criminalised the use of violence, threats of violence, or &ldquo;unpleasant treatment&rdquo; (<em>perbuatan tidak menyenangkan</em>) to compel another person to do, not do, or endure something. The phrase was vague and <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/stories/article/lt615bf4d0d6bed/batas-batas-perbuatan-yang-tidak-menyenangkan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">had been used</a> to criminalise everyday disputes, debt-collection conduct, and petty interpersonal grievances. The Court excised it for failure of &ldquo;legal certainty&rdquo;, a requirement under Article 28D(1) of the Constitution. Article 448 of the new KUHP omits the phrase, retaining only use-of-force.</p>
<p>My final example of compliance is <a href="https://s.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/putusan/putusan_sidang_1630_3%20PUU%202013-telahucap-30Jan2014.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 3/PUU-XI/2013</a>, which concerned the meaning of &ldquo;promptly&rdquo; in the old KUHAP&rsquo;s arrest provisions. Article 18(3) required police, after arresting a suspect, to deliver a copy of the arrest warrant to the suspect&rsquo;s family &ldquo;promptly&rdquo;, but did not define what &ldquo;promptly&rdquo; meant. In practice, families were sometimes left without notice of the arrest for weeks. The Court read &ldquo;promptly&rdquo; as meaning no more than seven days, holding that the absence of a defined period exposed families and suspects to arbitrary state action and obstructed the suspect&rsquo;s access to assistance, including legal. Article 95(3) of the new KUHAP codifies the rule and in fact goes further than the Court required, reducing the period to no more than one day. This responds to <a href="https://icjr.or.id/icjr-kritik-keras-putusan-mk-tentang-tafsir-makna-%E2%80%98segera%E2%80%99-dalam-kuhap/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">civil-society criticism</a> that &ldquo;no more than seven days&rdquo; was itself too generous.</p>
<h2>Override</h2>
<p>There are many examples of the new codes reinstating provisions that the Court struck from the old codes. I discuss three here.</p>
<p>First, in <a href="https://www.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/sinopsis/sinopsis_perkara_111_013-022+PUU-IV+2006.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 013-022/PUU-IV/2006</a>, the Constitutional Court struck down Articles 134, 136 bis and 137 of the old KUHP, which criminalised insulting the President and Vice-President (often referred to as the <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/a/putusan-mk-rekriminalisasi-delik-penghinaan-jabatan-lt5a8277ef50485/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>l&egrave;se-majest&eacute;</em></a> provisions). The Court reasoned in part that these provisions had been introduced during the colonial period to pursue Indonesian nationalist leaders who criticised the Dutch monarchy and colonial government. The Court also explained that &ldquo;Indonesia, as a democratic state based on law &hellip; can no longer appropriately retain in its Criminal Code articles &hellip; which negate the principle of equality before the law, reduce the freedom to express thought and opinion, the freedom of information, and the principle of legal certainty&rdquo;.</p>
<p>Articles 218 and 219 of the new KUHP reinstate the substance of the invalidated provisions, with several adjustments. Article 218(2) introduces a new exception for criticism made &ldquo;in the public interest or in self-defence&rdquo;, but the exception does not extend to Article 219, which covers public publication and electronic dissemination and carries a higher maximum penalty. Petitioners <a href="https://www.mkri.id/berita/uji-materiil-pasal-penghinaan-presiden,-pemohon-nilai-kuhp-ancam-kebebasan-berekspresi-24349" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">challenged these new provisions</a> (275/PUU-XXIII/2025, currently pending) on grounds materially similar to those the Court accepted in 2006, describing <a href="https://icjr.or.id/tidak-ada-pilihan-lain-pasal-tentang-penghinaan-presiden-dalam-bentuk-apapun-dalam-rkuhp-harus-dihapuskan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 218 as a revival of a norm previously declared unconstitutional</a>.</p>
<p>Second, Articles 263 and 264 of the new KUHP substantially reproduce the false-news offences in Articles 14&ndash;15 of UU 1/1946 (which criminalised spreading false or uncertain news likely to cause public disturbance). The Court invalidated those provisions in <a href="https://s.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/sinopsis/ikhtisar_3634_2032_IKHTISAR%20PUTUSAN%2078_2023%20UU%20KUHP.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 78/PUU-XXI/2023</a>, as <em>pasal karet</em> (rubber articles) too vague to satisfy legal certainty, with effects on freedom of expression. The Court reasoned that elements in these provisions &ndash; &ldquo;false news or announcement&rdquo;, &ldquo;uncertain or excessive reports&rdquo;, and the open-textured term &ldquo;public disturbance&rdquo; &ndash; left citizens unable to predict when criticism of government would attract criminal liability. The drafters of the new KUHP have introduced adjustments &ndash; for example, Article 263 requires the disseminator to know the news is false. But the new provisions ignore the Court&rsquo;s <a href="https://icjr.or.id/revisi-uu-ite-2024-dan-kuhp-2023-tentang-berita-bohong-penghinaan-dan-ujaran-kebencian-harus-dilakukan-merespons-berbagai-putusan-mk-tentang-kebebasan-berekspresi/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">objection</a> to the criminalisation of false-news distribution itself, on terms that allow public criticism of government to be caught. Articles 263 and 264 are also <a href="https://www.mkri.id/berita/aktivis-uji-pasal-penghasutan-dan-berita-bohong-dalam-kuhp-baru-24765" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">under constitutional review</a>.</p>
<p>Third is <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt519b604ebe2e3/mk-tegaskan-lsm-bisa-ajukan-praperadilan" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 98/PUU-X/2012</a>, which concerned standing in <em>praperadilan</em> &ndash; the pretrial mechanism the old KUHAP introduced, allowing courts to review the lawfulness of arrests, detentions, and the cessation of investigation or prosecution. Cessation has been a sensitive issue, particularly in corruption cases, where <a href="https://antikorupsi.org/index.php/id/article/obral-sp3-untuk-koruptor" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">civil society has long documented investigations being terminated despite available evidence and pressure to drop cases involving senior officials or political-business elites</a>. Article 80 set the standing rules for cessation challenges, permitting applications by investigators, prosecutors, or &ldquo;interested third parties&rdquo;. The Court read &ldquo;interested third parties&rdquo; to include NGOs and other civil-society organisations in cases involving crimes against the public interest.</p>
<p>The new KUHAP achieves the same kind of override, but by a different route. Where Articles 218&ndash;219 and 263&ndash;264 of the new KUHP re-enact provisions the Court struck down, Article 161 of the new KUHAP deletes the statutory category the Court was interpreting. It removes the &ldquo;interested third parties&rdquo; category entirely and restricts standing for cessation challenges to the victim, the reporter, or their legal counsel. NGOs &ndash; the precise class of applicants the Court said had to be included to satisfy the Constitution &ndash; are no longer eligible to bring <em>praperadilan</em> against the cessation of investigation or prosecution.</p>
<p>In each of these cases, the Court&rsquo;s reasoning was framed in democratic terms. Each invalidated provision was treated as incompatible with the kind of state &ndash; democratic, rights-respecting, governed by law &ndash; that the Constitution establishes.</p>
<h2>Compliance Thwarted in Substance</h2>
<p>The new codes also include provisions that, on their face, comply with Constitutional Court decisions but, read together with other provisions of the same code, undo the protective effect the Court had sought to achieve. These are formal acts of compliance that nonetheless thwart the substance of the rulings they purport to follow.</p>
<p>One example concerns the amount of evidence required to proceed against a suspect at the various stages of the criminal process. In <a href="https://www.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/putusan/21_PUU-XII_2014.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 21/PUU-XII/2014</a>, the Constitutional Court read the old KUHAP as <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/a/mk-rombak-bukti-permulaan-dan-objek-praperadilan-lt553f5575acd85/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">requiring at least two pieces of valid evidence</a> before suspect designation, arrest or detention. That decision imposed the two-evidence rule and expanded the scope of <em>praperadilan</em> to cover suspect designation (in addition to arrest, detention and the cessation of investigation or prosecution). This is important because naming a suspect is a procedural prerequisite to taking further action against them, including moving to a full investigation (<em>penyidikan</em>) and prosecution (<em>penuntutan</em>).</p>
<p>The new KUHAP codifies both aspects of the decision. Articles 90(1) and 94 require a minimum of two pieces of valid evidence for suspect designation and arrest; Article 100(5) applies the same threshold to detention, along with other requirements. Article 158 codifies the expanded scope of <em>praperadilan</em>.</p>
<p>However, other provisions of the Code undo any protective force of the two-evidence rule. Under the old Code, evidence was restricted to a closed list of five categories: witness testimony, expert testimony, documents, indications, and the defendant&rsquo;s statement. Article 235 of the new KUHAP added new categories &ndash; <a href="https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/the-new-kuhap-more-kinds-of-evidence-fewer-limits-part-1-of-2/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">including a catch-all</a> admitting &ldquo;anything that can be used for the purposes of proof&hellip; provided it is obtained lawfully&rdquo;. The two-piece requirement is trivial to satisfy when almost anything counts as one piece. Combined with the limited scope of <em>praperadilan</em> review &ndash; which checks whether the two-piece threshold is formally met but not the probative value of the evidence &ndash; the protective effect of the codification is almost entirely undone.</p>
<h2>Constitutional Disobedience</h2>
<p>Statutory revival of provisions the Constitutional Court has struck down is not new in Indonesia. A 2021 amendment to the 2004 Public Prosecution Law, for example, granted prosecutors a power to seek <a href="https://kepaniteraan.mahkamahagung.go.id/prosedur-berperkara/2174-pintu-peninjauan-kembali-oleh-jaksa-penuntut-umum-telah-ditutup-rapat" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">final review</a> (<em>peninjauan kembali</em>, or PK) of criminal judgments that <a href="https://mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/putusan/33_PUU-XIV_2016.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Court had reserved to defendants alone</a> &ndash; and in <a href="https://www.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/putusan/putusan_mkri_8977_1681462657.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 20/PUU-XXI/2023</a> the Court invalidated the amendment, observing that &ldquo;lawmakers should have understood that adding to the jurisdiction of prosecutors to lodge PKs would violate justice and legal certainty&rdquo;.</p>
<p>The Court itself calls this &ldquo;constitutional disobedience&rdquo; (<em>pembangkangan konstitusi</em>): in <a href="https://www.mkri.id/berita/putusan-mahkamah-konstitusi-bersifat-final-dan-mengikat-21529" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 98/PUU-XVI/2018</a> it held that continuing to treat an invalidated provision as valid &ldquo;is illegal and violates the Constitution&rdquo;, and in <a href="https://www.mkri.id/berita/putusan-mahkamah-konstitusi-bersifat-final-dan-mengikat-21529" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 32/PUU-XVIII/2020</a> that it is &ldquo;tantamount to ignoring the Constitution&rdquo;, since Article 1(3) defines Indonesia as a <em>negara hukum</em> (a state governed by law) bound by the Court&rsquo;s constitutional jurisprudence.</p>
<p>Whether re-enacting a struck-down norm in a new statute is itself such disobedience is, however, contested: on one view, a new code is a new statute that does not automatically inherit the Court&rsquo;s prior interpretations. The Court has taken a middle path. In <a href="https://www.mkri.id/public/content/persidangan/putusan/105_PUU-XIV_2016.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decision 105/PUU-XIV/2016</a> it held that a prior invalidation will be used as &ldquo;irrefutable evidence&rdquo; against a re-enacted norm &ndash; the approach it applied in Decision 20/PUU-XXI/2023 to strike down the prosecutorial PK revival.</p>
<p>Even so, this does not solve a fundamental problem: a revived norm remains in force until a sufficiently motivated applicant brings a fresh challenge, satisfies standing, and persuades the Court to invalidate it. That sequence may take years; it may never run at all. In the meantime, criminal provisions that reproduce those the Court has already declared unconstitutional are in force, and the constitutional rights the Court identified are disregarded. The irrefutable-evidence approach may lead the Court to a particular conclusion when a revived norm is finally tested. But it does nothing to ensure that revived norms are tested.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>When the Court invalidates a criminal provision for violating citizens&rsquo; constitutional rights, the legislature&rsquo;s re-enactment of it &ldquo;suggests blatant disregard for those rights&rdquo;. The KUHP revivals discussed here all concern freedom of expression and the democratic accountability of government and state institutions &ndash; <em>l&egrave;se-majest&eacute;</em>, criticism of government, and false news. The KUHAP examples concern the procedural protections that mediate the relationship between citizens and the state in criminal matters &ndash; civil-society standing to scrutinise prosecutorial decisions, and the structural force of the two-evidence rule. A procedural code that makes it easier to investigate, designate as a suspect, arrest, detain and convict, applied to a substantive code that recriminalises the kinds of speech most likely to attract the attention of state actors, is precisely the legal infrastructure that an executive intent on narrowing democratic space would prefer. The new codes belong to the broader pattern of <a href="https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/indonesia-democracy-without-collapse" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">democratic decline</a> documented elsewhere.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/criminal-code-indonesia-law/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Constitutional Disobedience by Statute</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T10:04:19+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Simon Butt</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T10:04:19+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="criminal law"/>

	<category term="indonesia"/>

	<category term="kuhp"/>

	<category term="mpi-csl-beitrag"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288943</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/fixing-the-hungarian-bench/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Fixing the Hungarian Bench</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>P&eacute;ter Magyar swept away Fidesz and won a constitutional majority. This brought a 16-year-long rule o...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>P&eacute;ter Magyar swept away Fidesz and won a constitutional majority. This brought a 16-year-long rule of Viktor Orb&aacute;n to an end. Yet Orb&aacute;n packed the courts with his people in the meantime. The million-dollar question is: should Magyar resort to another round of court-packing? This post advances a three-fold argument. First, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/21/1/80/7111298" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">legitimate court-packing</a>, even if it reacts to previous court-packing, must have a just cause and must be proportional. Second, the proportionality of such reactive court-packing should in general respect the &ldquo;paired effect&rdquo;, although a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378962520_Court-Unpacking_A_Preliminary_Inquiry" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stronger response may sometimes be justified</a>, among other things, by the cumulative impact of prior illegitimate court-packing and other court-curbing reforms. Finally, Magyar should not aim just for returning to the status quo before Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s court-packing. To build a resilient judiciary that enjoys the trust of the Hungarian people he must innovate. This inevitably requires addressing the shortcomings of the Hungarian judiciary in the pre-Orb&aacute;n era<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>1)</sup></a><span></span></span> and considering other reforms than reactive court-packing, For space constraints, this post focuses primarily on the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (K&uacute;ria) and the K&uacute;ria&rsquo;s judges.</p>
<h2>What Orb&aacute;n Did to the Supreme Court?</h2>
<p>Packing the Hungarian Supreme Court took a different twist than at the Constitutional Court. This time Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s regime chose a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/21/1/80/7111298" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">swapping strategy</a>. His 2012 reform reduced the mandatory retirement age (MRA) of Hungarian judges from 70 to 62 years. This step allowed Orb&aacute;n to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/eu-law-stories/early-retirement-age-of-the-hungarian-judges/F2794B5E6B7C7A6ED8D5291BA071C0A6" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">free 274 judicial positions</a>, mostly at higher courts. The Supreme Court was hit particularly hard as the most senior judges sit there. This allowed Orb&aacute;n to replace many of the suddenly retired judges with his own candidates. The Court of Justice of the European Union eventually found this reform <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/site/upload/docs/application/pdf/2012-11/cp120139en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in violation of EU law</a>, but its judgment <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/eu-law-stories/early-retirement-age-of-the-hungarian-judges/F2794B5E6B7C7A6ED8D5291BA071C0A6" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">arrived too late</a>. Some of the forcibly retired judges were allowed to return to their positions, but the harm was already done. Later, the MRA for judges was set at the age of 65.</p>
<p>In addition to court packing, Orb&aacute;n also <a href="https://blog-iacl-aidc.org/2025-posts/2025/8/26/judicial-overstay-tinkering-with-the-tail-end-of-judges-tenure" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tinkered with the tail end of the career</a> of Hungarian judges, as Hungary&rsquo;s 14<sup>th</sup> Constitutional Amendment <a href="https://constitutionnet.org/news/voices/hungarys-14th-constitutional-amendment-cementing-incremental-political-takeover-judicial-power" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">permits judges, on an individual basis, to remain on the bench until age 70</a>, instead of facing the MRA at 65. This discretionary extension of tenure can <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/lapo.12238" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">easily be abused</a> and qualifies as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/lapo.12238" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">court-hoarding</a>. Moreover, Chief Justices Peter Dar&aacute;k and Andr&aacute;s Varga filled many vacancies at the Supreme Court not through public calls and ordinary appointment processes, but by <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/defective-judicial-appointments-in-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">seconding judges from lower courts</a> to do service at the top court. Chief Justice Andr&aacute;s Varga was also accused of <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/defective-judicial-appointments-in-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">rigging permanent appointments</a> to the Supreme Court.</p>
<p>Finally, Orb&aacute;n also ensured that leadership of the Supreme Court would be loyal to his regime. He <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-last-days-of-the-independent-supreme-court-of-hungary/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">changed the eligibility rules for the chief justice</a> of the Supreme Court to make sure that his candidate, Andr&aacute;s Varga, was elected in 2020. Once Varga became a Chief Justice, Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s regime increased his powers. As a result, <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/trick-and-treat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Chief Justice Varga has a major say on key issues</a> such as selecting judges as well as the vice-presidents of the Supreme Court, and can influence the interpretation of law by assigning judges to the grand panels and through a new unification complaint procedure. To further cement the role of Chief Justice Varga, Orb&aacute;n ensured that the <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/trick-and-treat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MRA is not applicable to the chief justice</a>. Earlier on, Orb&aacute;n also prolonged the term of a chief justice from 6 to 9 years. As a result of these measures, taken cumulatively, the current <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/trick-and-treat/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Chief Justice Varga can remain in position with full powers for an indefinite period</a> by relying on a one-third parliamentary minority. The rationale of these reforms was clear &ndash; to provide insurance for Orb&aacute;n against a future electoral loss and to rob a new electoral winner of a legitimate appointment opportunity. Orb&aacute;n adopted similar tailored laws to <a href="https://helsinki.hu/en/yet-another-government-friendly-judicial-leader-at-the-supreme-court-of-hungary/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pave the way of Andr&aacute;s Patyi to the position of Vice President of Administrative Affairs of the K&uacute;ria</a> and then expand his powers.</p>
<h2>What Should Be Done Now?</h2>
<p>Now we can move to the potential solutions. Prime Minister P&eacute;ter Magyar <a href="https://www.eadaily.com/en/news/2026/04/13/magyar-called-on-the-entire-leadership-of-hungary-to-resign" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">called on Chief Justice Andr&aacute;s Varga to resign</a>. The proposal to remove him is also backed by scholars who argue that Magyar can remove the central perpetrators from the Hungarian judiciary and criminally punish those <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/restoring-the-rule-of-law-through-criminal-responsibility" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Hungarian judges who &ldquo;seriously and intentionally&rdquo; violate EU values</a>. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/but-first-implementation/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Some scholars</a> disagree with Magyar though and suggest that the proper way to remove them is to implement <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baka_v._Hungary" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ECtHR&rsquo;s <em>Baka </em>judgment</a> and give an independent judicial body the right to review the political decision on the removal of a chief justice. <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungarys-european-rebirth/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Kim Scheppele</a> suggested that Baka himself should be reinstated to the office of the chief justice.</p>
<p>Some of those solutions are very sweeping and go well beyond reactive court-packing. Magyar and many scholars view the 2026 parliamentary elections as a regime change that gives them carte blanche to reshape the judiciary. To be sure, it is an important <a href="https://dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/hungary-orban-magyar-constitution-tisza/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">constitutional moment</a> for Hungary. However, in my opinion, the defeat of Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s regime is nowhere close to democratic transitions from totalitarian (such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40803-024-00201-y" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">post-communist Europe after 1989</a>) and authoritarian (such as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ijtj/article-abstract/18/3/474/7816166?redirectedFrom=PDF" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">post-Salazar Portugal</a>) regimes where judicial purges were limited anyways. Most CEE countries have witnessed <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/523720/summary" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">democratic careening</a> rather than a straightforward path since 1989. The danger of cyclical court-packing and tit-for-tat judicial reforms are thus high. Other solutions run into practical problems as Andr&aacute;s Baka&rsquo;s age is beyond the current MRA and his reinstatement would require adopting an ad hominem law.</p>
<p>Hence, I believe that the discussion on responding to court-packing should begin by determining the paired effect &ndash; that is, numerically counterbalancing out the results of the past illegitimate court-packing. Regarding the leadership of the Supreme Court, the actions and speeches of Chief Justice Varga provide potentially good grounds for removing him, as suggested by <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/but-first-implementation/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Erika Farkas</a>. However, the Strasbourg Court&rsquo;s <em>Baka</em> judgment, paradoxically, complicates this move as it requires judicial review of a political decision to remove a chief justice by an independent judicial body. Such independent judicial body is difficult to find in Hungary now though. But recall that Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s regime also prolonged the term of a chief justice from 6 to 9 years and ensured that the MRA is not applicable to a chief justice. Undoing these ad hominem laws would do the job! If Magyar restores the original 6-year term, which applied when chief justice Baka was removed, and abolishes the ad hominem law which allows the chief justice to stay on the bench indefinitely (as the only judge in the Hungarian judicial system), Varga&rsquo;s term would finish in October 2026. And it would be in line with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baka_v._Hungary" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Baka </em>judgment</a> that chastised personalized legislation. The impeachment or disciplinary trial can take place afterwards, if necessary. Similar actions could be taken against Vice President of the Supreme Court Andr&aacute;s Patyi.</p>
<p>The situation regarding other judges on the Supreme Court is more difficult. There is no clear smoking gun such as the participation of Polish judges in the brand new Disciplinary Chamber and the Extraordinary Chamber at the Polish Supreme Court (I propose to label this group as &ldquo;black&rdquo; judges even though the Venice Commission itself does not use this label, since the Venice Commission agrees that they can be removed from the judicial office immediately due to gravity of the violations of the independence of the judiciary &ndash; see &sect;&sect; 58-60 of the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2026-002-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Venice Commission&rsquo;s Opinion</a>). Moreover, many Supreme Court judges forced to retire in the early 2010s due to a sudden lowering of MRA cannot be restored to the judicial office due to their age. Bringing them back would require selective judicial overstay beyond the MRA for a transitional period, which raises serious rule of law concerns and only provides a short-term solution anyways. Moreover, it would replicate Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s strategy mentioned above &ndash; in fact, the discretionary extension of tenure that permits judges, on an individual basis, to remain on the bench until age 70 should be abolished quickly.</p>
<p>Then there is an issue with problematic external appointments and promotions to the Supreme Court made under chief justice Varga&rsquo;s leadership. The most reasonable solution is to transplant <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2026-002-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Venice Commission&rsquo;s opinion on the so-called &ldquo;yellow&rdquo; and &ldquo;red&rdquo; judges in Poland</a> and adjust it to the Hungarian specifics. &ldquo;Yellow&rdquo; judges in the Hungarian context would concern judges promoted between 2010 and 2026, while &ldquo;red&rdquo; judges would be persons who entered the judiciary from other legal professions between 2010 and 2026. Regarding both groups, the Venice Commission held that they should remain in office until the new competition is announced, in which they can take part. If they do not succeed in the new competition, &ldquo;yellow&rdquo; judges return to their previous positions within the judiciary, while &ldquo;red&rdquo; judges can be removed. Given the long 16-year rule of Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s regime, this solution will be difficult to implement across the whole Hungarian judiciary. But it makes sense to conduct such analysis at the Supreme Court. If Magyar&rsquo;s government wants to reinforce the legitimacy of such vetting, it can also <a href="https://dejure.foundation/en/international-experts-should-take-part-in-the-selection-of-judges-and-judicial-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">involve foreign judges in this exercise</a>, because they are the &ldquo;impartial thirds&rdquo; and citizens in polarized societies tend to trust them more. Finally, it is up to Hungarian scholars to identify &ldquo;black judges&rdquo; at the Supreme Court (beyond its leadership) that did the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2026/05/18/world/americas/actually-democracy-dies-in-hr.html?searchResultPosition=1&amp;fbclid=IwdGRjcAR9KYdjbGNrBH0pfGV4dG4DYWVtAjExAHNydGMGYXBwX2lkDDM1MDY4NTUzMTcyOAABHgMWAg9PTJ2GWQMGQk-hp-XyU07K8N5xQ3OeZaEld9SLulwPD4zL7Z88ezNJ_aem_DV8eCGruPjDHTWijJXWrSw" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;dirty job&rdquo;</a> and committed such grave violations of judicial independence as to justify their immediate removal.</p>
<p>That said, court-packing, even if legitimate, entails <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qsWRDlkjHnc" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">opportunity costs</a> (at 9:40 min) as <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-missing-dimension/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">other reforms</a> might be more important. Even <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/public-opinion-and-the-us-supreme-court-fdrs-courtpacking-plan/3CF90A9501FF6D02A8E2CF1C9328F4E1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">FDR learned this lesson</a> the hard way.</p>
<h2>Don&rsquo;t Imitate &ndash; Innovate!</h2>
<p>However, a careful restoring the status quo is not the only possible solution. Magyar&rsquo;s government should not only imitate Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s reforms in reverse order, but also innovate and think outside the box. It should ensure transparency in judicial appointments and promotion and introduce <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungarys-european-rebirth/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">random case allocation</a>. It can revise the powers of the chief justice of the Supreme Court to make this position less interesting for politicians&rsquo; attention and less powerful vis-&agrave;-vis rank-and-file judges, as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40803-017-0065-y" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">some scholars</a> proposed a long time ago. It may introduce a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/23/1/263/8148807" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rotation system of selecting a chief justice</a> or entrench a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/23/1/179/8148804" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">seniority convention</a> to ensure predictability and transparency in selecting leaders of the Supreme Court. It should get rid of the existing patronage system and abolish the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/german-law-journal/article/decay-or-erosion-the-role-of-informal-institutions-in-challenges-faced-by-democratic-judiciaries/8290F147BE0E4B66DCF6871AC545027F" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">informal</a> carrots and sticks that allows politicians to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12286-024-00621-y" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;manage&rdquo; courts</a>. Instead of merely restoring the judge-dominated National Judicial Council, it should consider reconceptualizing it as a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-constitutional-law-review/article/case-for-judicial-councils-as-fourthbranch-institutions/9C1A6DBEC87D90D64546EB133BFF6F73" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fourth-branch institution</a> and balance judicial independence with other values such as accountability, efficiency and democratic legitimacy. It can also create <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/german-law-journal/article/civil-society-as-an-informal-institution-in-ukraines-judicial-reform-process/B192E3C0FDC841EC1CF387E179531EC7" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">public integrity councils</a> and involve civil society in selecting and promoting judges. The momentum is there. To paraphrase Havel, this would give &ldquo;power to the powerless&rdquo; &ndash; to the people and the civil society. Magyar can even go ahead with the judicial reform that Orb&aacute;n did not implement in the end &ndash; creating a Supreme Administrative Court and a new system of administrative courts. While Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s (unimplemented) 2018 reform establishing a new separate system of administrative courts, headed by a new Supreme Administrative Court, was rightly criticized by <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/an-advanced-course-in-courtpacking-hungarys-new-law-on-administrative-courts/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Hungarian</a> and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-constitutional-law-review/article/how-to-detect-abusive-constitutional-practices/683F5FB371FBD546FD5B9674D94E975E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">foreign</a> scholars, as well as the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/venice-commission/-/cdl-ad-2019-004-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Venice Commission</a>, the situation nowadays is different in many ways.</p>
<p>In sum, Magyar should think beyond punishing Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s allies on the bench and beyond replacing &ldquo;Fidesz&rdquo; judges with &ldquo;Tisza&rdquo; judges (or just restoring pre-Fidesz judges). Returning to the status quo before court-packing works only if the judiciary before the initial illegitimate court-packing worked well. That was <em>not</em> the case in Hungary.<span><a role="button" tabindex="0"><sup>2)</sup></a><span></span></span> Therefore, it is necessary to foster <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40803-024-00201-y#Fn126" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mental judicial independence</a> <em>and</em> reorganize the judicial system to regain public trust. This might require innovative solutions that go beyond undoing Orb&aacute;n&rsquo;s judicial reforms. Only then will Magyar be able to transform the Hungarian courts into a judiciary that will perform better, become more resilient and enjoy high public trust. In the end <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/the-big-lie-of-two-thirds-majority/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">only the people</a> can save the courts.</p>
<p>The stakes are high. Magyar might need to play <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-constitutional-theory/constitutional-hardball/C5E27A6239F8A4EBAF956B41D8365E1E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">constitutional hardball</a>, but he should play it wisely and assess it against the <a href="https://nyujlpp.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Pozen-Hardball-as-and-Anti-Hardball-21-NYU-JLPP-949.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">anti-hardball measures</a>. If he fails, <a href="https://nyujlpp.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Pozen-Hardball-as-and-Anti-Hardball-21-NYU-JLPP-949.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cyclical court-packing and tit-for-tat reforms</a> might ensue.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><em>The research leading to this blog post has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union&rsquo;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant no. 101002660-INFINITY-ERC-2020-COG).</em><a href="https://vifa-recht.de#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"></a></p>
<div> <div><p><span role="button" tabindex="0">References</span><span role="button" tabindex="0">[<a>+</a>]</span></p></div> <div><table><caption>References</caption> <tbody> 

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>1</a></th> <td>Katarzyna Karolina Krzy&#380;anowska just defended a wonderful PhD thesis at EUI on <a href="https://www.eui.eu/events?id=587114" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&ldquo;Mimetic Rivalry&rdquo;</a> that shows that many empirical claims made by Kaczy&#324;ski about the Polish judiciary in the early 2010s were actually grounded in reality and suggestions to reform the judiciary had a solid social support. To my knowledge, no such complex work exists on the Hungarian judiciary, but the problems of the pre-Orb&aacute;n judiciary are well known.</td></tr>

<tr> <th scope="row"><a><span>&uarr;</span>2</a></th> <td>See Attila Vincze, &ldquo;Nach der Wahl in Ungarn: Justiz vor dem Umbruch?&rdquo;, Deutsche Richterzeitung (forthcoming 6/26).</td></tr>

 </tbody> </table> </div></div><p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/fixing-the-hungarian-bench/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Fixing the Hungarian Bench</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T08:53:17+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>David Kosař</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T08:53:17+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="baka v. hungary"/>

	<category term="democratic restoration"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="hungarian constitutional court"/>

	<category term="hungary"/>

	<category term="on law and politics in the hungarian transition"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>

	<category term="venice commission"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288944</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-eingliederungshilfe/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Schulische Inklusion in Gefahr</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Die negativen, teilweise besorgniserregenden Meldungen zum Schulsystem in Deutschland rei&szlig;en nicht a...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Die negativen, teilweise besorgniserregenden Meldungen zum Schulsystem in Deutschland rei&szlig;en nicht ab. So hat die Quote der Schulabg&auml;nger:innen ohne Abschluss im vergangenen Jahr einen <a href="https://correctiv.org/aktuelles/bildung/2026/05/20/neuer-hoechststand-bei-schulabgaengern-ohne-abschluss/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">neuen H&ouml;chststand</a>&nbsp;erreicht. Kinder mit besonderen F&ouml;rderbedarfen gehen in diesem Schulsystem oft unter. Das Bundesministerium f&uuml;r Bildung, Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (BMBFSFJ) hat nun einen Referentenentwurf f&uuml;r ein <a href="https://www.bmbfsfj.bund.de/resource/blob/282924/40e9b4b778686896607d27c7c1c8f4dc/entwurf-eines-ersten-gesetzes-zur-strukturreform-der-kinder-und-jugendhilfe-data.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Kinder- und Jugendhilfestrukturreformgesetz</a> vorgelegt, der die Eingliederungshilfe grundlegend reformieren soll. Seit langem <a href="https://dijuf.de/handlungsfelder/inklusives-sgb-viii/1-kjhsrg-e" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fordern Wissenschaft und Fachverb&auml;nde</a>, die Leistungen unter dem Dach der Kinder- und Jugendhilfe zu b&uuml;ndeln. Diese sogenannte &bdquo;inklusive L&ouml;sung&ldquo; soll nun endlich Wirklichkeit werden. Gleichzeitig verspricht der Gesetzentwurf den L&auml;ndern Einsparungen in Milliardenh&ouml;he &ndash; vor allem dadurch, dass Infrastrukturangebote Vorrang vor individuellen Rechtsanspr&uuml;chen erhalten. Das betrifft insbesondere die Schulbegleitung: Der bisherige individuelle Rechtsanspruch soll weitgehend entfallen und durch eine infrastrukturelle Bildungsassistenz geleistet werden.</p>
<p>Damit greift das Ministerium zwar ein reales Problem auf. Doch die vorgeschlagene L&ouml;sung d&uuml;rfte den Druck in den Schulen weiter erh&ouml;hen und w&uuml;rde die betroffenen Kinder deutlich schlechterstellen. Der Entwurf gen&uuml;gt weder verfassungs- noch v&ouml;lkerrechtlichen Vorgaben. Ich entwickle daher einen konkreten &Auml;nderungsvorschlag.</p>
<h2>Ein nicht-inklusives Schulsystem unter Stress</h2>
<p>Eine <a href="https://www.unicef.de/informieren/aktuelles/presse/-/unicef-studie-kindeswohl-2026/397376" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Studie der UNICEF</a> sorgte j&uuml;ngst f&uuml;r Schlagzeilen: Danach schneidet Deutschland mit Blick auf das Wohlergehen von Kindern international weit unterdurchschnittlich ab. Dies wird vor allem mit der zunehmenden Kinderarmut und den schwachen Bildungsergebnissen gerade von Kindern aus benachteiligten Familien begr&uuml;ndet. Bei der Inklusion &ndash; &nbsp;also der von <a href="https://www.institut-fuer-menschenrechte.de/menschenrechtsschutz/datenbanken/datenbank-fuer-menschenrechte-und-behinderung/detail/artikel-24-un-brk" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Artikel 24</a> UN-Behindertenrechtskonvention geforderten gemeinsamen Beschulung von Kindern mit und ohne Behinderungen &ndash; liegen fast alle deutschen Bundesl&auml;nder deutlich hinter den internationalen Anforderungen zur&uuml;ck (<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354255967_Die_Umsetzung_schulischer_Inklusion_nach_der_UN-Behindertenrechtskonvention_in_den_deutschen_Bundeslandern" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Steinmetz et al.</a>). Entsprechend klar stellte der zust&auml;ndige UN-Fachausschuss in seinen <a href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/811105?v=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Abschlie&szlig;enden Bemerkungen</a> im letzten Staatenberichtsverfahren 2023 fest: Deutschland m&uuml;sse sein exkludierendes Schulsystem umbauen und die f&uuml;r Kinder mit Behinderungen notwendigen Unterst&uuml;tzungssysteme an den Regelschulen aufbauen (ausf&uuml;hrlich <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/failing-the-test/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Bliecke</a>).</p>
<p>Dabei steigt an deutschen Regelschulen die <a href="https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/PicturePark/2024-06/Factsheet_Inklusion_an_Deutschlands_Schulen_2022-2023.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zahl von Kindern mit festgestelltem sonderp&auml;dagogischem F&ouml;rderbedarf</a> seit Jahren kontinuierlich an &ndash; trotz gleichbleibend hohem Anteil an Kindern in F&ouml;rderschulen und h&auml;ufig mit einer klaren Korrelation zu sozialem Status bzw. Migrationsgeschichte der Familien. Gleichzeitig versch&auml;rft sich der <a href="https://www.fibs.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Leistungen/FiBS-Forum_79_Lehrkraeftebedarf_240301_final.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mangel an Lehrkr&auml;ften und qualifiziertem p&auml;dagogischem Personal</a>. Hinzu kommt der geradezu explosionsartige Anstieg von Schulbegleitungen. Nach einer bundesweiten <a href="https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/05/PD21_N027_221.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Auswertung des Statistischen Bundesamtes aus dem Jahr 2021</a> stiegen Leistungen f&uuml;r die Eingliederungshilfen f&uuml;r Kinder und Jugendliche mit einer seelischen Behinderung von 2009 bis 2019 bereits um 156 Prozent, ein Gro&szlig;teil davon Schulbegleitungen und Integrationshilfen. In der laufenden Dekade hat sich dieser Trend nochmals versch&auml;rft, wie viele St&auml;dte und Landkreise als Tr&auml;ger der &ouml;ffentlichen Jugendhilfe vermelden (siehe etwa <a href="https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/niedersachsen/klamme-kommunen-steht-die-eingliederungshilfe-auf-der-kippe,eingliederungshilfe-100.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Niedersachsen</a>, <a href="https://www.br.de/nachrichten/bayern/bedarf-an-schulbegleitern-in-bayern-deutlich-gestiegen,VBwLszN" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bayern</a> und <a href="https://www.news4teachers.de/2026/05/immer-mehr-schulbegleitungen-und-trotzdem-laengst-nicht-genug/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sachsen-Anhalt</a>). Es geht dabei einerseits um den Mangel an personellen und fachlichen Ressourcen, den die Schulbegleiter:innen in einem kriselnden Schulsystem abfedern, und andererseits um einen erheblichen <a href="https://www.staedtetag.de/positionen/beschluesse/2021/438-praesidium-kostenentwicklung-bei-hilfen-zur-erziehung" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">finanziellen Druck, der auf den St&auml;dten und Kommunen</a> lastet.</p>
<h2>Wissenschaftliche Befunde zur Schulbegleitung</h2>
<p>Der Entwurf will dieses System von individueller Begleitung einzelner Kinder nun auf Assistenzen umstellen, die personell an den Schulen verankert sind, und kann sich dabei durchaus auf wissenschaftliche Befunde st&uuml;tzen. Dabei muss man wissen, dass Eltern die Schulbegleitungen als Leistungen der Eingliederungshilfe bisher entweder beim Jugendamt (bei Kindern mit seelischer Behinderung, &sect;&nbsp;35a SGB VIII) oder beim Sozialamt (bei Kindern mit k&ouml;rperlichen oder geistigen Behinderungen, &sect; 90 SGB IX) als Individualleistungen beantragen m&uuml;ssen. Das Sozialamt bewilligt diese dann in der Regel als Begleitung f&uuml;r das jeweilige Kind (nach &sect; 112 Abs. 4 SGB IX sind mittlerweile allerdings auch sog. <a href="https://www.bildung.uni-siegen.de/mitarbeiter/kissgen/publikationen/files/zfh_01.2019_kissgen.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pool-Leistungen</a> m&ouml;glich).</p>
<p>Gerade in den letzten zehn Jahren ist eine Reihe von wissenschaftlichen Studien zur Schulbegleitung entstanden, die zu weitgehend einhelligen Ergebnissen gelangen. Schulbegleitungen fehlt eine klare Definition ihrer Aufgaben und Rolle (<a href="https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2014/8539/pdf/BF_2013_1_Heinrich_Luebeck_Hilflose_haekelnde_Helfer.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Heinrich/L&uuml;beck</a>); sie sind h&auml;ufig nicht ausreichend in die Prozesse und Organisation der Schulen und die p&auml;dagogische Arbeit mit den Lehrkr&auml;ften eingebunden (etwa <a href="https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2025/34432/pdf/LuL_2025_2_Alramseder_et_al_Schulbegleitung_als_Schluessel_.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Almrandseder et al.</a>). Problematisch sind h&auml;ufige Wechsel zwischen den als Schulbegleitung t&auml;tigen Personen und die Fixierung auf das einzelne Kind anstelle der gesamten Lerngruppe, was Lernprozesse und die soziale Integration erheblich beeintr&auml;chtigen kann (statt vieler <a href="https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/opus4-wuerzburg/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/32230/file/978-3-95826-223-2_Rief_OPUS_32230.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rief, S. 213 ff</a>.). Als besonders problematisch gilt die mangelnde p&auml;dagogische Qualifikation vieler Schulbegleitungen (siehe etwa <a href="https://www.edu.lmu.de/esE/downloads/forschung/profess__schulbegleiter-innen.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dworschak/Markowetz</a>). Anforderungen oder Standards &ndash; wie das Fachkr&auml;ftegebot gem. &sect; 72 SGB VIII &ndash; gibt es f&uuml;r sie nicht; ihre Besch&auml;ftigungsverh&auml;ltnisse sind zudem oft befristet und schlecht verg&uuml;tet (<a href="https://www.fachportal-paedagogik.de/literatur/vollanzeige.html?FId=3310751" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">L&uuml;beck/Heinrich</a>). Vor diesem Hintergrund haben Martin Heinrich und Anika L&uuml;bcke von &bdquo;<a href="https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2014/8539/pdf/BF_2013_1_Heinrich_Luebeck_Hilflose_haekelnde_Helfer.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hilflos h&auml;kelnden Helfern</a>&ldquo; gesprochen: Sie interviewten eine Schulbegleiterin, die ihre oft passive Situation in der Klasse mit H&auml;keln verbringt.</p>
<h2>Ein offensichtlicher Widerspruch</h2>
<p>Mitunter kommt es sogar dazu, dass in einer Klasse &bdquo;f&uuml;nf Schulbegleitungen&ldquo; f&uuml;r unterschiedliche Sch&uuml;ler:innen sitzen, die, wie es Bundesministerin Karin Prien in einem Interview auf den Punkt bringt, &bdquo;<a href="https://www.bmbfsfj.bund.de/bmbfsfj/aktuelles/reden-und-interviews/karin-prien-ich-bin-entschlossen-umzusetzen-was-im-koalitionsvertrag-steht--285964" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nicht miteinander arbeiten, die nicht mit der Lehrkraft arbeiten, die nicht mit der Schulleitung arbeiten</a>&ldquo;, wobei sie anf&uuml;gt: &bdquo;Diese Praxis m&uuml;ssen wir beenden&ldquo;. Auch wenn ihr klar zu sein scheint, dass der vorliegende Gesetzesentwurf das System nicht verbessern wird, will sie durch die Abschaffung des Individualanspruchs &bdquo;am Ende zumindest Kostensteigerungen d&auml;mpfen&ldquo;.</p>
<p>Es mag auf den ersten Blick plausibel erscheinen, ein teures System mit nachgewiesenen M&auml;ngeln abzuschaffen oder deutlich zur&uuml;ckzubauen. Es kann an der dringenden Reformbed&uuml;rftigkeit der Schulassistenz auch &uuml;berhaupt kein Zweifel bestehen. Dennoch ist es kurzsichtig, die erheblichen Folgen zu &uuml;bersehen, die mit einer weitgehenden Einschr&auml;nkung des Individualanspruchs auf Schulbegleitung verbunden sind.</p>
<p>Zun&auml;chst zeigen fast alle Studien, dass die Schulbegleitung Kindern mit F&ouml;rderbedarf in vielen F&auml;llen &uuml;berhaupt erst die Teilnahme am regul&auml;ren Schulunterricht erm&ouml;glicht &ndash; gerade angesichts der gegenw&auml;rtig mangelnden Unterst&uuml;tzungsressourcen und fehlenden Fachkr&auml;fte im System. Es ist jemand da, der sich individuell um das Kind k&uuml;mmern kann &ndash; selbst wenn dieses &bdquo;K&uuml;mmern&ldquo; derzeit in vielen F&auml;llen nicht p&auml;dagogisch optimal ausf&auml;llt. Dennoch sind die Begleitungen gegenw&auml;rtig f&uuml;r viele Kinder mit Unterst&uuml;tzungsbedarfen unverzichtbar, um ihre Bildungsteilhabe zu erm&ouml;glichen (zusammenfassend <a href="https://deutsches-schulportal.de/bildungswesen/immer-mehr-kinder-bekommen-unterstuetzung-durch-schulbegleiter/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Kuhn</a>).</p>
<p>Schulbegleitungen entlasten zudem die Lehrkr&auml;fte und nehmen Druck aus einem ohnehin stark belasteten System. Wir k&ouml;nnen uns einmal vorstellen, wie die Situation in der von Ministerin Prien beschriebenen Klasse auss&auml;he, wenn eine Lehrkraft neben der Arbeit mit der gesamten Klasse allein die f&uuml;nf Kinder mit besonderen Unterst&uuml;tzungsbedarfen betreuen m&uuml;sste.</p>
<p>Dazu soll es nat&uuml;rlich nicht kommen. So sieht der neue &sect; 80a SGB VIII-Entwurf vor, dass &ouml;ffentliche Jugendhilfetr&auml;ger zusammen mit den Schulen Bildungsassistenzen als Infrastrukturleistungen planen. Doch dieser Planungsauftrag, den die L&auml;nder landesrechtlich konkretisieren m&uuml;ssen, wird nicht mehr durch einen Individualanspruch unterlegt. Ein solcher soll nach &sect; 35d Abs. 4 Satz 2 SGB VIII-Entwurf nur noch dann bestehen, wenn &bdquo;den Besonderheiten des Einzelfalles ausschlie&szlig;lich&ldquo; durch eine individuelle Anleitung und Begleitung des Kindes entsprochen werden kann. Ob die jeweilige Schule tats&auml;chlich ein quantitativ und qualitativ ausreichendes Angebot f&uuml;r die Unterst&uuml;tzung zur Verf&uuml;gung stellen kann, soll nicht (mehr) entscheidend sein; ein Anspruch auf die Einrichtung infrastruktureller Leistungen i.S.d. &sect; 80a SGB VIII-Entwurf besteht nicht.</p>
<p>Nach allem, was wir &uuml;ber Implementationsprozesse rein objektivrechtlicher und planerischer Infrastrukturleistungen in der Kinder- und Jugendhilfe wissen (dazu <a href="https://www.inlibra.com/de/document/view/detail/uuid/921ff8c4-e775-3f8d-bc23-d31f8e1229c6" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scheiwe/Schr&ouml;er/Wapler/Wrase</a>), w&uuml;rde es nach dem vorliegenden Entwurf zu einem erheblichen Abbau von Schulassistenzen kommen, statt hochwertige Unterst&uuml;tzungsangebote &ndash; die es sicher in einzelnen Modellkreisen bzw. -schulen geben wird &ndash; aufzubauen. Davon geht offensichtlich auch das Ministerium aus. Ansonsten lie&szlig;e sich kaum erkl&auml;ren, wie man auf Einsparung von hunderten Millionen, ja &uuml;ber 2 Milliarden Euro pro Jahr in zehn Jahren kommen will. Jan-Martin Wiarda fasst diesen offensichtlichen Widerspruch gegen&uuml;ber der Ministerin in eine simple, aber treffende <a href="https://www.bmbfsfj.bund.de/bmbfsfj/aktuelles/reden-und-interviews/karin-prien-ich-bin-entschlossen-umzusetzen-was-im-koalitionsvertrag-steht--285964" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Frage</a>: &bdquo;Wie soll das gehen? Geld sparen und zugleich ein besseres System schaffen?&ldquo;</p>
<h2>Versto&szlig; gegen die UN-Behindertenrechtskonvention</h2>
<p>Die Reform h&auml;tte weitreichende Folgen: Der Druck auf die Lehrkr&auml;fte, vor allem in sozial belasteten Schulen, w&uuml;rde sich weiter erh&ouml;hen. Ein System unter Stress d&uuml;rfte unter noch mehr Stress geraten. F&uuml;r etliche Kinder mit Unterst&uuml;tzungsbedarf w&uuml;rde es noch schwieriger bis unm&ouml;glich werden, eine Regelschule zu besuchen, sodass sich noch mehr Eltern am Ende f&uuml;r eine F&ouml;rderschule entscheiden (m&uuml;ssten). Deutschland fiele bei der Inklusion noch weiter zur&uuml;ck. Auch die Anzahl der Rechtsstreitigkeiten von Eltern, die vor den Gerichten um eine Individualbegleitung f&uuml;r ihr Kind nach &sect; 35d Abs. 4 Satz 2 SGB VIII-Entwurf k&auml;mpfen, d&uuml;rfte deutlich zunehmen. Ein mahnendes Beispiel daf&uuml;r ist die Entwicklung in England und Wales. Dort ist die Zahl von Rechtsverfahren zu Schulassistenzen mit der Einschr&auml;nkung von Leistungen f&uuml;r SEN (<em>Special Educational Needs</em>) an den Schulen <a href="https://www.bera.ac.uk/blog/the-english-send-tribunal-appeal-rate-moving-the-goalposts-to-sustainability" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">massiv angestiegen</a>. Das st&uuml;nde auch in Deutschland zu bef&uuml;rchten.</p>
<p>Bliebe es bei der vorgeschlagenen Regelung, m&uuml;ssten Gerichte entscheiden, ob die &bdquo;Besonderheiten des Einzelfalls&ldquo; auch dann vorliegen, wenn ein f&uuml;r das jeweilige Kind bedarfsgerechtes Angebot an der jeweiligen Schule nicht zur Verf&uuml;gung steht &ndash; was oft der Fall sein wird. Eine solche Auslegung w&auml;re im Lichte der Verpflichtungen des internationalen und des Verfassungsrechts zwar geboten, w&uuml;rde aber den Wortlaut und den klar erkennbaren Willen des Gesetzgebers &uuml;berschreiten.</p>
<p>Art. 24 Abs. 2 lit. c und d UN-BRK garantiert ausdr&uuml;cklich das Recht von Menschen mit Behinderungen auf &bdquo;angemessene Vorkehrungen&ldquo; sowie die &bdquo;notwendige Unterst&uuml;tzung, um ihre erfolgreiche Bildung&ldquo; zu erm&ouml;glichen. Auch aus der EMRK lassen sich entsprechende Pflichten ableiten: In der <a href="https://www.reha-recht.de/fileadmin/user_upload/RehaRecht/Infothek/Rechtsprechung/2020/AFFAIRE-G.L.-c.-ITALIE_DE_DF-fin_bf.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rechtssache G. L. gegen Italien</a> stellte der Europ&auml;ische Gerichtshof f&uuml;r Menschenrechte 2020 fest, dass das Diskriminierungsverbot des Art. 14 EMRK im Lichte der genannten Vorgaben aus der UN-BRK auszulegen ist. Die Verweigerung einer notwendigen Assistenz f&uuml;r ein junges M&auml;dchen mit nicht-verbalem Autismus unter Berufung auf fehlende schulische Ressourcen hat der Gerichtshof als eine entsprechende Konventionsverletzung angesehen und dazu ausgef&uuml;hrt:</p>
<blockquote><p>&bdquo;dass es die Beh&ouml;rden vers&auml;umt haben, die tats&auml;chlichen Bed&uuml;rfnisse der Beschwerdef&uuml;hrerin zu ermitteln und L&ouml;sungen zu suchen, um ihr den Besuch der Grundschule im Rahmen des M&ouml;glichen zu gleichen Bedingungen zu erm&ouml;glichen.&ldquo; (EGMR, Urteil vom 10.9.2020 &ndash; 59751/15 &ndash; G. L. gegen Italien, Rn. 70)</p></blockquote>
<p>Diese Rechtsprechung w&auml;re auch verfassungsrechtlich beim Recht auf schulische Bildung zu ber&uuml;cksichtigen, das das Bundesverfassungsgericht aus Art. 2 Abs. 1 i.V.m. Art. 7 Abs. 1 GG herleitet, verst&auml;rkt durch Art. 3 Abs. 3 Satz 2 GG. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat in seiner grundlegenden Bundesnotbremse II-Entscheidung deutlich gemacht, das Recht auf schulische Bildung sei &bdquo;in Einklang mit der v&ouml;lkerrechtlichen Gew&auml;hrleistung eines &sbquo;Rechts auf Bildung&lsquo; und Unionsrecht&ldquo; auszulegen (<a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2021/11/rs20211119_1bvr097121.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfG, Beschluss des Ersten Senats vom 19. November 2021 &ndash; 1 BvR 971/21, 1069/21</a>, Rn. 66; dazu <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/ein-beschluss-mit-weitreichenden-folgen/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Wrase</a>).</p>
<h2>Vorschlag f&uuml;r eine v&ouml;lker- und verfassungskonforme Regelung</h2>
<p>Sowohl aus bildungswissenschaftlicher als auch v&ouml;lker- und verfassungsrechtlicher Sicht sollte &sect; 35d Abs. 4 Satz 2 SGB VIII-Entwurf daher unbedingt &uuml;berarbeitet werden. Der individuelle Rechtsanspruch auf Bildungsassistenz darf nur dann entfallen, wenn an der jeweiligen Schule ein ausreichendes, dem Bedarf des Kindes entsprechendes Unterst&uuml;tzungsangebot tats&auml;chlich sichergestellt ist.</p>
<p>Ein ge&auml;nderter &sect; 35d Abs. 4 SGB VIII-Entwurf, der den Vorgaben des Art. 24 Abs. 2 lit c und d UN-BRK sowie Art. 2 ZP EMRK i.V.m. Art. 14 EMRK gen&uuml;gt, k&ouml;nnte danach wie folgt lauten:</p>
<p>&bdquo;Die in der Schule oder Hochschule wegen der Behinderung erforderliche Anleitung und Begleitung werden als infrastrukturelle Angebote nach &sect; 80a gew&auml;hrt, soweit hierdurch den Bedarfen des jungen Menschen nach dem Ergebnis der Pr&uuml;fung gem&auml;&szlig; &sect; 27 Absatz 4 entsprochen werden kann&ldquo; (vorgeschlagene &Auml;nderung kursiv). Der Satz 2 k&ouml;nnte entfallen.</p>
<p>Diese Regelung w&uuml;rde sicherstellen, dass der individuelle Unterst&uuml;tzungsanspruch nur dann und insoweit entf&auml;llt, als an der jeweiligen Schule ein ausreichendes Angebot an infrastrukturellen Unterst&uuml;tzungsleistungen tats&auml;chlich besteht. Nur wenn der Individualanspruch bei Nichterf&uuml;llung erhalten bleibt, werden die Tr&auml;ger der &ouml;ffentlichen Jugendhilfe dazu angehalten, ausreichende infrastrukturelle Unterst&uuml;tzungsleistungen nach &sect;&nbsp;80a SGB VIII-Entwurf an den Schulen aufzubauen (zum Ganzen <a href="https://www.inlibra.com/de/document/view/pdf/uuid/fa7efa5c-d4e3-34a1-b3a3-e83aa38a5b50?page=1&amp;toc=2894902" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Meysen</a>). Das haben nicht zuletzt auch die Erfahrungen beim Aufbau von Kita-Pl&auml;tzen gezeigt (<a href="https://www.bundeswirtschaftsministerium.de/Redaktion/DE/Schlaglichter-der-Wirtschaftspolitik/2024/11/06-abbau-kinderbetreuung.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BMWE</a>).</p>
<p>Bleiben entsprechende &Auml;nderungen aus, steht nicht nur die Teilhabe von Kindern mit Unterst&uuml;tzungsbedarfen auf dem Spiel. Vielmehr droht die &Uuml;berlastung eines Schulsystems, das bereits vielerorts an seine Grenzen st&ouml;&szlig;t. Eine weitergehende Reform der Schulassistenz, die der Gesetzentwurf einleitet, bleibt dringend notwendig und ist mit wissenschaftlich-fachlicher Begleitung anzugehen.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/reform-eingliederungshilfe/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Schulische Inklusion in Gefahr</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T08:16:13+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Michael Wrase</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T08:16:13+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="behinderung"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="eingliederungshilfe"/>

	<category term="inklusion"/>

	<category term="inklusion [mathematik]"/>

	<category term="jugendliche"/>

	<category term="kinderrechte"/>

	<category term="menschen mit behinderungen"/>

	<category term="schulbegleitung"/>

	<category term="schule"/>

	<category term="schulen"/>

	<category term="sozialrecht"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288901</id>
	<link href="https://www.juwiss.de/49-2026/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Wie viele braucht’s zum Untersuchen?</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von ANN-SOPHIE WEBER und BERNHARD WEILER Noch in der letzten Sitzung der 18. Legislaturperiode &auml;nder...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>von ANN-SOPHIE WEBER und BERNHARD WEILER Noch in der letzten Sitzung der 18. Legislaturperiode &auml;nderte der rheinland-pf&auml;lzische Landtag am 6. Mai 2026 die Landesverfassung: Das erforderliche Quorum, um einen Untersuchungsausschuss einzusetzen (Art. 91 Abs. 1 Satz 1 LV), wurde von einem F&uuml;nftel der Mitglieder des Landtags auf ein Viertel erh&ouml;ht. Brisant war vorliegend, dass die...</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T08:00:22+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gastautorin</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://www.juwiss.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://www.juwiss.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T08:00:22+00:00</updated>
		<title>Junge Wissenschaft im Öffentlichen Recht e.V.</title></source>

	<category term="minderheitenrechte"/>

	<category term="recht lokal"/>

	<category term="recht politisch"/>

	<category term="rheinland-pfalz"/>

	<category term="untersuchungsausschuss"/>

	<category term="verfassungsänderung"/>

	<category term="wehrhafte demokratie"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-28:/288899</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/towards-an-associate-membership-status-for-ukraine/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Towards an “Associate Membership” Status for Ukraine?</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>In a recent letter addressed to the Cypriot Council Presidency and the leaders of the European Commi...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>In a recent <a href="https://newunionpost.eu/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/260518-BK-letter-to-PEC-et-al.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">letter</a> addressed to the Cypriot Council Presidency and the leaders of the European Commission and the European Council, German Chancellor Friederich Merz proposed a status of &ldquo;associate membership&rdquo; for Ukraine. This &ldquo;innovative solution&rdquo; is presented as an intermediate step towards full membership. It envisages, amongst others, Ukraine&rsquo;s participation in the EU&rsquo;s main institutions but without voting rights or dedicated portfolio; an extension of the EU&rsquo;s &ldquo;mutual assistance&rdquo; clause (Art. 42(7) TEU) as a security guarantee for Ukraine and a &ldquo;snap-back mechanism&rdquo; that could be triggered in case of Ukraine&rsquo;s backsliding in democratic and market economy reforms.</p>
<p>The German proposal is not the first and most likely not the last of this kind. It echoes earlier suggestions about &ldquo;<a href="https://english.nv.ua/nation/eu-weighs-reverse-enlargement-plan-for-ukraine-s-partial-membership-by-2027-50582528.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reverse enlargement</a>&rdquo;, proposed by Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, and ideas about &ldquo;<a href="https://cdn.ceps.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Template-2.0-for-Staged-Accession-to-the-EU.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">staged integration</a>&rdquo; floated in academic circles. The main objective of all those proposals is to ensure continuous support for Ukraine&rsquo;s reform efforts in the understanding that obtaining full membership is a long and cumbersome process. Providing an &ldquo;intermediate&rdquo; and &ldquo;tailor-made&rdquo; status for Ukraine aims to overcome a tension between the political imperatives of enlargement as &ldquo;a geopolitical necessity&rdquo; on the one hand, and fulfilment of the formal requirements for membership on the basis of an objective and merit-based process, on the other hand. Moreover, it comes at a time when the EU envisages a more prominent role in any future peace negotiations between Russia and Ukraine.</p>
<p>Whereas the political inspiration of Merz&rsquo;s proposal is clear, its translation into practice raises significant questions. The letter proceeds from the assumption that the granting of an &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; status for Ukraine is possible on the basis of &ldquo;a strong political agreement&rdquo; and without a ratification of an Accession Treaty or any EU Treaty changes. This assumption is, arguably, the weakest part of the entire document.</p>
<h2>An Ambiguous Legal Status</h2>
<p>A status of &ldquo;associate membership&rdquo; without a clear legal basis may be perceived as a form of &ldquo;window-dressing&rdquo; offering a symbolic type of second-rate or fake membership without real, substantive rights. Ukrainian President <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-zelenskiy-says-proposal-associate-eu-membership-unfair-2026-05-23/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zelensky</a> already hinted at this risk when he stated that &ldquo;Ukraine does not defend Europe partially, therefore it deserves full membership&rdquo;. He also emphasised that &ldquo;without Ukraine there can be no real European project, thus the presence of Ukraine in the EU must be real too&rdquo;. Vice-Prime Minister for European integration of Ukraine, <a href="https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/news/2026/05/22/7238121/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Taras Kachka</a>, further commented that the proposal of German Chancellor Merz can only be considered as complimentary to achieve the objective of full EU membership but not as an alternative format even though he acknowledged that different mechanisms can play a role in the EU accession process. One aspect of the proposal received a<a href="https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/articles/2026/05/25/7238258/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> more positive reaction</a> among Ukrainian political and expert communities. This is the suggestion to allow Ukrainian representatives to work in EU institutions either on an informal or formal basis. It is believed that the sooner Ukraine embarks upon this process and develops domestic political and legal mechanisms for a transparent selection of candidates, the better. For instance, it took many years for Ukraine to set up a transparent and well-functioning system for the selection of candidates for the office of judge at the European Court on Human Rights in Strasbourg. Further, Ukrainian civil servants and experts with experience of working and dealing with EU institutions could considerably enhance the quality of the EU accession process of Ukraine.</p>
<p>The key question, however, is how the envisaged status of &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; can work in practice, The concept of &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; has no legal basis in the EU Treaties and ambiguously combines the notions of &ldquo;association&rdquo; as foreseen under Article 217 TFEU and &ldquo;membership&rdquo; under Article 49 TEU.</p>
<p>The legal concept of <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/IPOL_STU(2019)608861" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">association</a> is very flexible and typically provides for various forms of integration without formal membership. A clear dividing line between the status of &ldquo;association&rdquo; and &ldquo;membership&rdquo; precisely concerns the participation in EU decision-making and full representation in the EU institutions. The latter is reserved for Member States only, in order to preserve the Union&rsquo;s decision-making autonomy. Even participation without voting rights is, in principle, excluded for non-members, because their mere presence may already affect the deliberations. Accordingly, third-country representatives cannot be given a formal participatory role on the basis of an Association Agreement. There can only be an <em>ad hoc</em> participation, upon invitation and for a specific item on the agenda. In recent years, Ukrainian President Zelensky has been invited on several occasions to update the members of the European Council on the situation in Ukraine. This is, however, not to be seen as a formal participation in the European Council meeting. An invited third-country representative can only enter the room for a specific item and is not allowed to intervene or even be present during the deliberations. As observed by the <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/nl/documents/public-register/public-register-search/?WordsInSubject=&amp;WordsInText=&amp;DocumentNumber=6566%2F20&amp;InterinstitutionalFiles=&amp;DocumentTypes=&amp;DateFrom=&amp;DateTo=&amp;MeetingDateFrom=&amp;MeetingDateTo=&amp;DocumentLanguage=NL&amp;OrderBy=DOCUMENT_DATE+DESC" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Council&rsquo;s legal service</a> some time ago, this strict arrangement applies to all third countries irrespective of how closely their legal relations with the Union are and irrespective of their participation in the EU enlargement process. The only exception concerns the situation of acceding countries, which can act as observers in the interim period between the signature of the Treaty of Accession and its entry into force.</p>
<p>Hence, introducing a kind of &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; which envisages participatory rights in EU institutions is legally impossible under Article 217 TFEU. A &ldquo;strong political agreement&rdquo;, as suggested in Merz&rsquo;s letter, is arguably also not an option. As can be derived from the case law of the <a href="https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/document/C/2013/C-0660-13-00000000RD-01-P-01/ARRET/182295-EN-1-html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Court of Justice</a>, non-binding arrangements must also respect the EU&rsquo;s institutional balance and decision-making autonomy. The only feasible option is, therefore, to proceed on the basis of a Treaty on Accession, i.e. an agreement between the Member States and the applicant state as foreseen under Article 49 (2) TEU. Such an agreement includes &ldquo;the conditions of admission and the adjustments of the Treaties on which the Union is founded&rdquo;. Arguably, this provision gives the contracting parties a broad margin of discretion to define the precise terms of admission and required EU Treaty amendments, as long as there is a link with the actual enlargement of the Union. Granting new Member States a transitionary status without full voting rights in the EU institutions could perhaps be part of such an arrangement. As mentioned, previous enlargement rounds envisaged such an observer status for the period between the signature and actual entry into force of the Treaty on Accession. The main difference and challenge of the Merz proposal is related to the undefined period of the associated membership status. A long-term exclusion of new Member States from the EU&rsquo;s decision-making procedures seems difficult to reconcile with the principle of equality between the Member States, as enshrined in Article 4(2) TEU. At the very least, a clear procedure and perspective towards full participation is warranted.</p>
<h2>A Security Guarantee for Ukraine</h2>
<p>The most substantive aspect of the German proposal concerns the possibility for Ukraine to request aid from other Member States under the mutual assistance clause of <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:12008M042" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Article 42(7) TEU</a>. This provision, introduced with the Treaty of Lisbon, has remained largely unexploited. It was triggered once, after terrorist attacks in France. Since the US attempts to acquire Greenland from Denmark and an Iranian drone attack on a British military base in Cyprus, the <a href="https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2026/04/24/eu-mutual-assistance-clause-doesnt-contradict-nato-kallas-tells-euronews-as-trump-blasts-a" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">High Representative</a> and the European External Action Service (EEAS) are working on the operationalisation of the clause.</p>
<p>The inclusion of Ukraine within the geographical scope of application of Article 42 (7) TEU would be a significant development. Again, the proposal of Chancellor Merz is very ambiguous in the sense that it envisages &ldquo;a political commitment by the Member States to apply Article 42 (7) TEU&rdquo;. The question here is how such a political commitment can be reconciled with the text and spirit of the EU Treaties. Article 42 (7) TEU explicitly refers to the situation where &ldquo;a Member State is the victim of an armed aggression on its territory.&rdquo; The mutual assistance commitment is an expression of the special bond between the Member States in a common legal order. It seems that an extension of this commitment cannot easily be done on the basis of a political commitment, particularly if this is deemed to create &ldquo;a substantial security guarantee.&rdquo; Arguably, such a guarantee requires the formal granting of an EU Member State status to Ukraine on the basis of a Treaty of Accession or, alternatively, the inclusion of a similarly worded provision in the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement.</p>
<p>Extending the &ldquo;mutual assistance&rdquo; clause to Ukraine is in any event a sensitive issue for the existing Member States. It is almost impossible to imagine such an extension at a time of active warfare between Russia and Ukraine because this would immediately involve all EU Member States in the conflict. A more plausible scenario is to offer this prospect as part of a future peace deal between Russia and Ukraine. In such a scenario, Article 42 (7) TEU could serve as the EU&rsquo;s security guarantee for Ukraine against Russian military aggression in the future. This largely corresponds to some ideas that were included in a US-based <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/e50481a3-161c-4002-83e4-cae0be12799e?syn-25a6b1a6=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">draft peace proposal</a> that was presented at the end of 2025. The offer of an accelerated Ukrainian EU membership was seen as an integral part of the envisaged compromise, but it quickly turned out that such a commitment cannot be upheld in view of a merit-based enlargement process and the procedural requirements of Article 49 TEU. An intermediate status of &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; focussing on the inclusion of Ukraine in the EU&rsquo;s mutual assistance clause aims to overcome this issue. Whether this can be done on the basis of a &ldquo;strong political commitment&rdquo; is, however, doubtful.</p>
<h2>A &lsquo;Snap-Back Mechanism&rsquo; as a Safeguard Against Backsliding</h2>
<p>The idea of a &ldquo;snap-back mechanism&rdquo; in case of backsliding in respect for the EU&rsquo;s fundamental values, most notably the rule of law, is the least controversial aspect of the proposal. In fact, this replicates the EU&rsquo;s pre- and post-accession conditionality as gradually developed in the EU&rsquo;s enlargement policy. The recent generation of EU negotiating frameworks with candidate countries, including <a href="https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/hzmfw1ji/public-ad00009en24.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ukraine</a>, already envisage a special procedure to counter backsliding in reform implementation. This implies that the Commission, either on its own initiative or at the duly motivated request of a Member State, can propose a suspension of the accession negotiations; withhold its recommendation to open or close other negotiating clusters and chapters; or recommend the re-opening of chapters that had been provisionally closed. The Commission&rsquo;s proposal is deemed to be adopted by the Council unless it is rejected by a qualified majority within 90 days.</p>
<p>With respect to post-accession conditionality, the introduction of safeguard clauses in a Treaty of Accession can address concerns of potential backsliding after accession (in addition to the potential use of Article 7 TEU). As announced by Commissioner for enlargement, <a href="https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2026/02/13/kos-montenegros-eu-accession-treaty-should-be-the-first-of-a-new-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Marta Kos</a>, the next Accession Treaty with Montenegro will contain even stronger safeguards than before. Hence, the inclusion of a mechanism countering potential backsliding in the proposal for &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; hardly comes as a surprise. It is all but new and a confirmation of existing practice.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>The proposal by German Chancellor Merz for &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; is part of the ongoing debate over further EU enlargement and the EU&rsquo;s role in providing security guarantees for Ukraine. It aims to reconcile the geopolitical necessity to do something for Ukraine without undermining the formal enlargement procedure. Whereas certain aspects of the proposal may sound attractive at first sight, the absence of a strong legal foundation or even an in-depth reflection about the legal translation of this political initiative undermines its credibility. The lukewarm response from Kyiv should not come as a surprise when there is a constant flow of general ideas and offers of symbolic membership.</p>
<p>A key concern is also that the envisaged &ldquo;associated membership&rdquo; is specifically designed for the situation of Ukraine. For the Western Balkan countries and Moldova, Chancellor Merz proposes &ldquo;to look into innovative solutions also for those candidate countries&rdquo;. This may introduce a new cleavage in the EU&rsquo;s enlargement process, with a special arrangement for Ukraine, on the one hand, and the other candidate countries, on the other hand. Even though the situation of Ukraine as a country at war is indeed particular, the introduction of such a division entails the risk that Ukraine is left behind in its progress towards full membership.</p>
<p>Given the geopolitical significance of further enlargement, as emphasised time and again in official EU documents, it is striking that the discussion on how to proceed is still largely based on rather vague proposals. Whereas Ukraine and other candidate countries proceed with their reform process, the Union fails to properly do its own homework. Already in 2024, the <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/publications/communication-pre-enlargement-reforms-and-policy-reviews_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Commission</a> announced a thorough assessment of required internal pre-enlargement reforms and policy reviews. The outcome of this exercise still needs to be communicated. When the EU is serious about enlargement, a substantive and comprehensive vision is required instead of a constant flow of political ideas.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/towards-an-associate-membership-status-for-ukraine/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Towards an &ldquo;Associate Membership&rdquo; Status for Ukraine?</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-28T07:11:00+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Peter van Elsuwege</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-28T07:11:00+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="russian war against ukraine"/>

	<category term="ukraine"/>

	<category term="ukraine eu accession"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-27:/288855</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vetoing-the-president/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Vetoing the President?</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Following Fidesz&rsquo;s electoral defeat, the country&rsquo;s new political leadership has pledged ...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Following Fidesz&rsquo;s electoral defeat, the country&rsquo;s new political leadership has <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJBjCRqkoSI" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pledged to</a> dismantle the legal and institutional structures that enabled sixteen years of democratic backsliding. Yet one of the most powerful obstacles to that project may be hidden in plain sight: the constitutional powers of the President of the Republic. If President Tam&aacute;s Sulyok chooses to use them aggressively, Hungary could soon find itself facing an unprecedented constitutional crisis. Since April 12, P&eacute;ter Magyar has repeatedly called on Fidesz-loyalist officials &ndash; most notably the president himself &ndash; to step aside by May 31 at the latest. And he has repeatedly refused. The prime minister&rsquo;s concern is understandable, as the president&rsquo;s approval is essential for the adoption and amendment of laws &ndash; and, as we shall see, of the Fundamental Law. Yet the conflict is not merely political. It reflects a deeper constitutional problem: democratic reconstruction must proceed while key institutions remain under the control of the previous regime.</p>
<h2>A phased constitutional process</h2>
<p>The Fundamental Law of Hungary has become an instrument for dismantling the rule of law, while the institutions originally designed to protect constitutional democracy have, through the systematic appointment of political loyalists, ceased to serve as its guardians and instead have become emblematic of its erosion. There is broad agreement among constitutional lawyers in Hungary that adopting a new constitution requires two stages. This concept is based on an <a href="https://fundamentum.hu/sites/default/files/fundamentum-2022-1-2-01.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">article</a> by G&aacute;bor Attila T&oacute;th published in 2022, which distinguishes the &ldquo;<a href="https://www.academia.edu/143181047/Restoring_constitutional_democracy_in_the_conflict_of_laws_A_new_model_ppt_" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>restorative constitution-making</em></a>&rdquo;&nbsp;from the so-called <em>classical constitution-making</em>. The first phase is the so-called <a href="https://fundamentum.hu/sites/default/files/fundamentum-2022-1-2-01.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>negative constitution-making</em></a>, which aims to temporarily restore the minimum requirements of constitutional democracy by invalidating the rules that underpin the autocratic legal order. The second step concerns the adoption of a new constitution, and can be described as <em>positive constitution-making</em>. It is beyond dispute that we are in a phase of negative constitution-making development. Yet even with a two-thirds majority in the Parliament, the Tisza government must remain bound by constitutional principles. Otherwise, the very logic that enabled Fidesz to dismantle the constitutional order through politically motivated amendments would persist. The challenge is also compounded by the fact that key public institutions entrenched by Fidesz make the restoration of constitutionalism extraordinarily difficult.</p>
<h2>The President as a Constitutional Veto Player</h2>
<p>As&nbsp;Kim Lane Scheppele&nbsp;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungarys-european-rebirth/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">has recently observed</a>, even a parliamentary supermajority must contend with entrenched institutional &ldquo;<a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/escaping-orbans-constitutional-prison/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">veto players</a>.&rdquo; P&eacute;ter Magyar appeared to recognize this on election night, identifying the President of the Republic and the packed Constitutional Court as the principal obstacles to both democratic reconstruction and the constitutional reforms necessary to unlock EU funding. This explains his repeated calls for President Tam&aacute;s Sulyok to resign voluntarily and his decision to set a public deadline for doing so. There is, however, little indication that the President intends to step aside. On the contrary, Sulyok has already <a href="https://24.hu/belfold/2026/05/18/sulyok-tamas-lemondas-magyar-peter-ultimatium/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">signaled</a> that any legislation or constitutional amendment must be adopted &ldquo;in accordance with the rule of law and respect for European values&rdquo; and that, under European and international constitutional standards, even the appearance that a legislative process is aimed at removing an elected public official should be avoided. These statements are striking coming from a president whose tenure has been marked by near-complete deference to a government that spent sixteen years weakening constitutional checks and balances. Concerns about the rule of law, European constitutional standards, or the protection of <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/we-the-bugs-hungary-orban-lgbtq/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">minorities</a> did not appear to weigh heavily when <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/rela/50/3-4/article-p328_007.xml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">legislation expanding decree-based governance</a>, authorizing the <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/another-thread-in-the-spider-web-citizenship-hungary-elections/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">suspension of citizenship for certain dual nationals</a>, or targeting sexual minorities was enacted. More importantly, the President now appears poised to assume a far more activist role than at any previous point in his presidency. A head of state who has largely functioned as a reliable signatory of government legislation may seek to reinvent himself as an active wielder of both political and constitutional veto powers. If so, it is difficult to imagine that he would facilitate constitutional amendments&mdash;or accompanying legislation&mdash;whose explicit purpose is the premature termination of his own mandate.</p>
<p>If the President chooses to assume a more activist role, the obvious question is what constitutional tools are actually available to him. Under Article 6 of the Fundamental Law, every law adopted by Parliament must be signed by both the Speaker of the National Assembly and the President of the Republic before it can be promulgated and enter into force. As a general rule, the President is therefore obliged to sign legislation within five days of receiving it. There are, however, two important exceptions. First, if the President considers a law unconstitutional, he may refer it to the Constitutional Court for a preliminary review of its conformity with the Fundamental Law. Second, if he objects to the legislation on policy or other grounds, he may return it to Parliament for reconsideration. Of these two powers, the constitutional veto is by far the more significant. Not only does it delay the law&rsquo;s entry into force, but it also triggers a preliminary review by the Constitutional Court, which must rule on the legislation&rsquo;s constitutionality within thirty days. Should the Court identify a constitutional defect, Parliament must revisit the law before it can be promulgated. By contrast, a political veto merely requires Parliament to reconsider the bill; once it has done so, the President is obliged to sign it regardless of whether his objections have been addressed. The rules governing amendments to the Fundamental Law, however, are significantly different &ndash; and considerably more restrictive.</p>
<h2>Constitutional Amendments: A Different Set of Rules</h2>
<p>The rules are considerably narrower when it comes to amendments to the Fundamental Law. Unlike ordinary legislation, constitutional amendments are not subject to substantive constitutional review before promulgation. Under Articles 9 and 24 of the Fundamental Law, the President may refer an adopted constitutional amendment to the Constitutional Court only if he believes that the procedural requirements governing its adoption were violated. In principle, therefore, neither the President nor the Court may assess the substance of a constitutional amendment at this stage. There is, however, an important difference between ordinary legislation and constitutional amendments. In the case of an unpromulgated law, only the President may initiate a preliminary constitutional review. By contrast, once a constitutional amendment has been promulgated, the procedure may also be initiated by one-quarter of the Members of Parliament, the President of the Curia, the Prosecutor General, or the Ombudsman. Given the current composition of these offices&mdash;and the fact that Fidesz-KDNP still <a href="https://vtr.valasztas.hu/ogy2026" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">holds 52 seats</a> in the 199-member Parliament&mdash;most of the key institutional actors involved in the process remain closely associated with the previous regime.</p>
<p>Formally, the President&rsquo;s powers are therefore limited to procedural objections. In practice, however, President Sulyok&rsquo;s recent statements suggest that he may be willing to push those limits. If Parliament were to adopt a constitutional amendment aimed at removing either the President himself or another Fidesz-appointed officeholder before the expiry of their mandate, he could attempt to frame the measure as incompatible with constitutional principles or European standards or because it violates the prohibition on retroactive legislation. Such objections would be substantive rather than procedural and would therefore sit uneasily with the constitutional framework itself. Yet they could still provide the basis for a constitutional confrontation&mdash;and potentially trigger the impeachment scenario discussed below.</p>
<h2>Impeachment</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://helsinki.hu/wp-content/uploads/Fundamental_Law_of_Hungary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Fundamental Law</a> itself provides a potential response to presidential obstruction. Under Article 13, the President of the Republic may be removed from office if he intentionally violates the Fundamental Law or any other law in connection with the exercise of his duties, or commits an intentional criminal offense. The procedure may be initiated by one-fifth of the Members of Parliament and requires the support of a two-thirds majority of all MPs. In theory, this mechanism could become relevant if the President were to exceed the constitutional limits of his office. For example, a refusal to sign a duly adopted constitutional amendment within the constitutionally prescribed deadline, or an attempt to subject such an amendment to a form of substantive constitutional review that the Fundamental Law does not permit, could arguably amount to a violation of the President&rsquo;s constitutional obligations. In such circumstances, the parliamentary majority could initiate impeachment proceedings. Yet here another institutional obstacle emerges. While the National Assembly is responsible for initiating the procedure, it is not Parliament that ultimately decides the case. Under the current constitutional framework, the Constitutional Court acts as the adjudicating body in impeachment proceedings. Given the Court&rsquo;s present composition, there is little reason to expect that it would readily remove a President closely associated with the political forces that appointed its members. At first glance, therefore, Hungary appears trapped in a constitutional circle: a President capable of obstructing constitutional change can only be removed through a procedure that ultimately depends on another institution widely perceived as politically aligned with the previous regime.</p>
<p>This, however, is not the end of the story.</p>
<p>Paradoxically, the Fundamental Law itself contains a mechanism that may substantially reduce the President&rsquo;s ability to interfere with the legislative process once impeachment proceedings have begun. Article 13(4) provides that from the moment the National Assembly adopts the resolution initiating impeachment proceedings until those proceedings are concluded, the President may no longer exercise his powers. Since, in the context of impeachment proceedings against the President of the Republic, the Fundamental Law merely stipulates that the President &ldquo;may not exercise his or her powers,&rdquo; yet the President plays a crucial role in the legislative process, it is necessary to provide for some form of replacement even for this extended period. The provision on &ldquo;incapacity&rdquo; contained in Article 14 of the Fundamental Law could serve as a supplementary provision, as this is ultimately what it addresses. Under these rules, the fact of temporary incapacity is established by the National Assembly, acting on the initiative of the President, the Government, or any Member of Parliament. Once such incapacity has been declared, the President&rsquo;s powers are exercised by the Speaker of the National Assembly. The implications are significant. If impeachment proceedings were initiated against the President and Parliament simultaneously declared his temporary incapacity, presidential powers would pass to the Speaker. Although the Speaker, acting as interim President, may not exercise the rights of a Member of Parliament and therefore loses his or her vote, the governing majority would nevertheless retain the two-thirds majority necessary to adopt the constitutional amendments required for democratic reconstruction. Ironically, then, one of the most effective tools for neutralizing the presidential veto may be found not outside the Fundamental Law, but within it. The constitutional architecture that was designed to entrench political power may also contain the means to overcome one of its most formidable obstacles.</p>
<h2>A Constitutional Reckoning</h2>
<p>What Hungary is confronting is no longer a routine political transition, but a far more profound reckoning with the foundations of constitutional government itself. When institutions created to safeguard democracy become instruments of its erosion, the challenge ceases to be one of personnel and becomes one of constitutional principle. The presidential veto may be one of the most formidable obstacles to <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/rebuilding-markets-restoring-democracy/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">democratic reconstruction</a>. Yet it is not necessarily an insurmountable one. Indeed, the very constitutional framework designed to entrench Fidesz&rsquo;s power may also contain the means to overcome its most significant public law obstacles. The real question, therefore, is not whether constitutional tools exist to navigate these veto points, but whether there will be sufficient political will &ndash; and democratic restraint &ndash; to employ them. Ultimately, the issue extends far beyond the fate of a single president or a handful of political appointees. It is about whether Hungary can move from a constitutional order designed to preserve power to one capable of limiting it. The success of constitutional reconstruction will depend not on the existence of institutional roadblocks, but on whether those entrusted with power can restore constitutional democracy without reproducing the logic of constitutional abuse. The challenge is formidable &ndash; but so too is the opportunity.</p>
<p><em>Research for this post was supported by a Grant from the German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (GIF, Grant number 1557).</em></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/vetoing-the-president/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Vetoing the President?</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-27T14:32:33+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Gábor Mészáros</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-27T14:32:33+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="democratic restoration"/>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="fidesez"/>

	<category term="tisza"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-27:/288856</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/verfassungsschutzbericht-judische-stimme/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">Sensibilität, nicht Nervosität</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Mit Beschluss vom 27. April hat das Verwaltungsgericht Berlin dem Eilantrag der &bdquo;J&uuml;dischen Stimme f&uuml;...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Mit <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Beschluss</a> vom 27. April hat das Verwaltungsgericht Berlin dem Eilantrag der &bdquo;J&uuml;dischen Stimme f&uuml;r gerechten Frieden in Nahost e.V.&rdquo; stattgegeben &ndash; der Verein hatte sich insbesondere dagegen gewehrt, im Verfassungsschutzbericht 2024 als extremistisch eingestuft zu werden. Das Verfahren ist kein Einzelfall: Immer <a href="https://nrwe.justiz.nrw.de/ovgs/vg_koeln/j2026/13_L_1109_25_Beschluss_20260226.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">h&auml;ufiger</a> streiten Gruppierungen oder Parteien vor Verwaltungsgerichten darum, ob ihre Nennung im Verfassungsschutzbericht rechtm&auml;&szlig;ig ist. Dahinter steckt ein grunds&auml;tzliches Problem. Der Verfassungsschutz bewegt sich als &bdquo;<a href="https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/DE/verfassungsschutz/auftrag-und-arbeitsweise/verfassung-schuetzen/verfassung-schuetzen_artikel.html#:~:text=effektive%20Fr%C3%BChwarnsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Fr&uuml;hwarnsystem</a>&ldquo; auf einem schmalen Grat: dem zwischen <em>noch Worten</em> und <em>schon Taten</em>.</p>
<p>Es liegt in der Natur des Instituts &bdquo;Verfassungsschutz&ldquo;, extremistische Gruppierungen bereits dann in den Blick zu nehmen, wenn sich deren politische Haltung noch gar nicht zu einer Gefahr verdichtet hat. Der verfassungsschutzrechtliche Aufgaben- und Befugnisbereich des Bundesamts f&uuml;r Verfassungsschutz (BfV) beginnt damit erheblich fr&uuml;her als der klassischer Gefahrenabwehrbeh&ouml;rden. Zugleich ist allgemein anerkannt, dass staatliche Eingriffe &ndash; gleich welcher Art &ndash; nicht an die Gesinnung allein angekn&uuml;pft werden d&uuml;rfen. Ein Verbot &bdquo;gef&auml;hrlicher Geisteshaltung&ldquo; kann es nicht geben. Das Problem versch&auml;rft sich, wenn das Bundesministerium des Innern (BMI) diese Gruppierungen &ndash; so wie im eingangs erw&auml;hnten Fall &ndash; danach auch im Verfassungsschutzbericht als &bdquo;extremistisch&ldquo; erw&auml;hnt.</p>
<p>Dass derlei Verfahren zuletzt auch prominent zugunsten der Antragsteller ausgingen, weist auf Schwierigkeiten in der Beurteilung dieser F&auml;lle hin. Allzu schnell droht ein falsches Verst&auml;ndnis von Wehrhaftigkeit in Angst vor der Freiheitsaus&uuml;bung von (Grund-)Rechtstr&auml;gern und schlie&szlig;lich einen reflexiven Selbstschutz umzuschlagen. Dies gilt gerade f&uuml;r Staatskritik. (insgesamt dazu <em>Barczak</em>, JZ 2024, 419 [419 ff.]). Dabei sollten vermeidbare Niederlagen vor Gericht vor allem im Sinne der grundrechtlichen Freiheiten, unbedingt aber auch aus Eigennutz vermieden werden. Wann also wird eine Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung zum tauglichen Ankn&uuml;pfungspunkt dieser besonderen Form der staatlichen &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit? Sensibilit&auml;t statt Nervosit&auml;t beweist das Verwaltungsgericht Berlin.</p>
<h2>Beschluss des Verwaltungsgerichts Berlin</h2>
<p>Konkret hatten das BfV bzw. BMI die &bdquo;J&uuml;dische Stimme&ldquo; im Kapitel &bdquo;Linksextremismus&ldquo; als extremistische Bestrebung genannt (vgl. Verfassungsschutzbericht 2024, <a href="https://verfassungsschutzberichte.de/bund/2024#168" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">S. 168</a>) und im Kapitel &bdquo;Auslandsbezogener Extremismus&ldquo; schlie&szlig;lich als &bdquo;gesichert extremistisch&ldquo; eingestuft (S. <a href="https://verfassungsschutzberichte.de/bund/2024#:~:text=280" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">280</a>) und sich dazu auf &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 3 und 4 BVerfSchG gest&uuml;tzt. Der Verein leugne das Existenzrecht Israels und rechtfertige und billige Terror gegen die israelische Bev&ouml;lkerung. Im Beschluss stellt das Verwaltungsgericht klar, dass eine Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung allein kein ausreichender Ankn&uuml;pfungspunkt f&uuml;r eine &bdquo;Bestrebung&ldquo; (&sect; 4 Abs. 1 BVerfSchG) sein kann. &Uuml;ber die blo&szlig;e Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung hinaus sei ein aktives, nicht notwendig k&auml;mpferisch-aggressives Vorgehen zur Realisierung eines bestimmten Ziels erforderlich und es m&uuml;sse die Absicht erkennbar sein, gesellschaftliche Machtanteile zu erringen bzw. die staatliche Ordnung zumindest in Teilen ver&auml;ndern zu wollen (Rn. <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865#:~:text=Greift%20man%20auf,juris%20Rn.%C2%A0219)." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">48</a>).</p>
<p>Anschlie&szlig;end stellt das Gericht auf die spezifischen Tatbestandmerkmale der &sect;&sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 3 und 4 BVerfSchG ab, geht auf den Bestrebungsbegriff als allgemeinen Ankn&uuml;pfungspunkt f&uuml;r eine Nennung im Verfassungsschutzbericht (und nachrichtendienstliche Ma&szlig;nahmen generell) aber nur implizit ein (etwa Rn. 52 und <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865#:~:text=Ideen,Bewertung" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">60</a>). Weil &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 3 BVerfSchG jedenfalls ein Verhalten zur konkreten F&ouml;rderung von Gewalt erfordert und das Gericht den Tatbestand des &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 4 BVerfSchG vergleichbar auslegt (Rn. <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865#:~:text=70,-bb" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">70</a> ff.), folgen schwerpunktm&auml;&szlig;ig spezifische &Uuml;berlegungen zur F&ouml;rderung von Gewalt, insbesondere durch Guthei&szlig;en des Terrors der Hamas. Diese erkannte das Gericht trotz diverser Verdachtsmomente nicht in hinreichender Deutlichkeit. Nur auf den ersten Blick kurios ist, dass das <a href="https://www.vg-koeln.nrw.de/behoerde/presse/Pressemitteilungen/11_20052026/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Verwaltungsgericht K&ouml;ln</a> am 20. Mai die Einstufung durch das BfV als solche f&uuml;r rechtm&auml;&szlig;ig erachtete. Hintergrund des Beschlusses ist aber die Einbeziehung sp&auml;terer &ndash; den Hamas-Terror explizit bef&uuml;rwortender &ndash; &Auml;u&szlig;erungen.</p>
<p>Abseits des spezifischen Gewaltf&ouml;rderungsmerkmals weisen die Beschl&uuml;sse damit auf die eingangs aufgeworfene und im Begriff der Bestrebung verankerte Grundsatzfrage zur&uuml;ck: Wann sind Worte verfassungsschutzrelevante Taten?</p>
<h2>Der Verfassungsschutzbericht als Dilemma</h2>
<p>Einmal pro Jahr informiert das BMI die &Ouml;ffentlichkeit &uuml;ber Bestrebungen und T&auml;tigkeiten i.S.d. &sect; 3 Abs. 1 BVerfSchG gem&auml;&szlig; &sect; 16 Abs. 2 BVerfSchG. Werden Gruppierungen oder Parteien in der Publikation genannt, ist dies ein &ndash; durchaus intensiver &ndash; staatlicher Eingriff (regelm&auml;&szlig;ig in Art. 5 Abs. 1 S. 1 Alt. 1, Art. 9 Abs. 1 oder Art. 21 Abs. 1 GG). Deshalb und wegen des politischen Kapitals, das in der &ouml;ffentlichkeitswirksamen gerichtlichen Auseinandersetzung liegt, kann es nicht &uuml;berraschen, dass die Genannten regelm&auml;&szlig;ig gegen ihre Erw&auml;hnung vorgehen (vgl. zuletzt <a href="https://nrwe.justiz.nrw.de/ovgs/vg_koeln/j2026/13_L_1109_25_Beschluss_20260226.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">VG K&ouml;ln, Beschl. v. 26.02.2026 &ndash; 13 L 1109/25</a>).</p>
<p>Den Begriff der &bdquo;Bestrebung&ldquo; i.S.d. &sect;&nbsp;3&nbsp;Abs. 1 Nr. 1, 3 und 4 BVerfSchG definiert &sect; 4 Abs. 1 S. 1 BVerfSchG als politisch bestimmte, ziel- und zweckgerichtete Verhaltensweise in einem oder f&uuml;r einen Personenzusammenschluss, der auf die Beseitigung oder Beeintr&auml;chtigung des jeweils in &sect;&nbsp;3&nbsp;Abs. 1 und &sect; 4 Abs. 1 BVerfSchG aufgef&uuml;hrten Schutzguts gerichtet ist &ndash; kurz: extremistisch oder verfassungsfeindlich (<em>Ullrich</em>, JZ 2016, 169 [171 f.]). &bdquo;Bestrebung&ldquo; muss also ein aktives Handeln sein, das dabei nicht zwingend k&auml;mpferisch-aggressiv oder strafbar sein muss (s. <a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2022/04/rs20220426_1bvr161917.html#:~:text=185-,Das,6%29%2E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfGE 162, 1 [88 f. Rn. 185</a>]; <a href="https://www.bverwg.de/de/141220U6C11.18.0#:~:text=20,ff%2E%29%2E,-21" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerwGE 171, 59 [Rn. 20]</a>). Zwar kann der Inhalt einer Meinung damit isoliert betrachtet noch kein tauglicher Ankn&uuml;pfungspunkt sein (vgl. Rn. <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865#:~:text=Greift%20man%20auf,juris%20Rn.%C2%A0219)." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">48</a> des Beschlusses sowie auch <em>Ogorek</em>, JZ 2025, 285 [286]). Ist die Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erung aber &bdquo;Ausdruck eines Bestrebens&ldquo; (<a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2005/05/rs20050524_1bvr107201.html#:~:text=aa%29-,Es,%C3%A4ndern%2E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfGE 113, 63 [82 Rn. 72</a>]) und geht insoweit &bdquo;&uuml;ber das blo&szlig;e Vorhandensein einer politischen Meinung hinaus [&hellip;]&ldquo; (<a href="https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2022/04/rs20220426_1bvr161917.html#:~:text=185-,Das,6%29%2E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfGE 162, 1 [88 Rn. 185</a>]), kann sie es mittelbar doch.</p>
<p>Unter diesen Umst&auml;nden erm&ouml;glicht &sect; 16 Abs. 2 BVerfSchG dem BMI, sich mit politischen Meinungen von Grundrechtstr&auml;gern auseinanderzusetzen, mehr noch: <a href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/afd-kann-die-auseinandersetzung-mit-carl-schmitt-im-umgang-mit-der-partei-helfen-accg-110833746.html." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Grundrechtstr&auml;ger wortw&ouml;rtlich zum (Verfassungs-)Feind zu erkl&auml;ren</a> und so auf die politische Willensbildung einzuwirken. Der Verfassungsschutzbericht steht also potenziell in einem so offenen wie starken Spannungsverh&auml;ltnis diverser, vielzitierter Grund- und Glaubenss&auml;tze der Demokratie des Grundgesetzes. Sei es das Leitbild demokratischer Willensbildung i.S.d. Art. 20 Abs. 2 GG, die sich <a href="https://www.servat.unibe.ch/dfr/bv044125.html#:~:text=48-,4,beeinflussen%2E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">&bdquo;vom Volk zu den Staatsorganen&ldquo;</a>, also von unten nach oben, vollziehen soll, sei es Habermas&lsquo; Konzept der deliberativen Demokratie und des herrschaftsfreien Diskurses, seien es die <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/das-boeckenfoerde-diktum/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Voraussetzungen des freiheitlichen, s&auml;kularisierten Staates, die er selbst nicht garantieren kann.</a></p>
<p>Es dr&auml;ngen sich also mindestens zwei wesentliche Fragen auf: Warum sollte eine Demokratie sich dieses Instrument leisten und durch welche Kriterien kommen die verschiedenen Rechtsg&uuml;ter zu einem angemessenen Interessenausgleich?</p>
<h2>Grund und Funktion des Verfassungsschutzberichts</h2>
<p>Die Verfassungsschutzberichterstattung durch das BMI ist ein spezieller und im &Uuml;brigen auch einer der wenigen einfachgesetzlich geregelten F&auml;lle staatlicher &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit. Im Allgemeinen entfalten die Erw&auml;gungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts zur allgemeinen staatlichen &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit ihre Wirkung auch hier:</p>
<blockquote><p>&bdquo;&Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit [&hellip;] ist in Grenzen nicht nur verfassungsrechtlich zul&auml;ssig, sondern auch notwendig. Die Demokratie des Grundgesetzes bedarf [&hellip;] eines weitgehenden Einverst&auml;ndnisses der B&uuml;rger mit der vom Grundgesetz geschaffenen Staatsordnung. [&hellip;] Diesen Grundkonsens lebendig zu erhalten, ist Aufgabe staatlicher &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit.&ldquo; (<a href="https://www.servat.unibe.ch/dfr/bv044125.html#:~:text=62-,%C3%96ffentlichkeitsarbeit,%C3%96ffentlichkeitsarbeit%2E" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">BVerfGE 44, 125 [147</a>]).</p></blockquote>
<p>Staatliche &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit soll gesamtgesellschaftlich also integrativ wirken. Der Staat kann die ihn tragenden Voraussetzungen zwar nicht garantieren oder erzwingen; er kann sie aber zumindest f&ouml;rdern. Der Grundkonsens besteht jedoch insbesondere darin, dass das Grundgesetz in Reaktion und Abkehr vom totalit&auml;ren Staat eine Staatsordnung schafft, die die &ndash; grundrechtlich abgesicherte &ndash; Freiheit seiner B&uuml;rgerinnen und B&uuml;rger in den Mittelpunkt stellt. Wenn der Staat durch die Publikation von Verfassungsschutzberichten aber in eben diese Freiheit eingreift, kann der Zweck &bdquo;Grundkonsens&ldquo; allein die Spannung nicht aufl&ouml;sen und muss zus&auml;tzlich begr&uuml;ndet werden.</p>
<p>Diese Begr&uuml;ndung liegt im Konzept der wehrhaften Demokratie. Dessen Ausdruck sind die Existenz der Verfassungsschutzbeh&ouml;rde im Allgemeinen (Art. 73 Abs. 1 Nr. 10 lit. a GG, Art. 87 Abs. 1 S. 2 GG) sowie der Verfassungsschutzberichte im Besonderen (<em>Gusy</em>, NVwZ 1986, 6 [6]; <em>Kr&uuml;per</em>, in: Dietrich/Eiffler, HdNDR, 3. Teil &sect; 1 Rn. 24 ff. 57 ff.). Versteht man &bdquo;Wehrhaftigkeit&ldquo; aber als mehr als die rechtlichen Instrumente des Staates und soll sie &ndash; ebenfalls im Sinne des Grundkonsenses &ndash; mit Leben gef&uuml;llt sein, ist sie nicht ausschlie&szlig;lich Aufgabe des Staates oder einer Regierung. Vielmehr kommt es auf die B&uuml;rgerinnen und B&uuml;rger an. Im Ergebnis sind sie es, die sich mit extremistischen Bestrebungen kritisch auseinanderzusetzen haben. Die Voraussetzungen dieser Auseinandersetzung sind vielf&auml;ltig. Wie f&uuml;r jede andere freie Willensbildung auch braucht es zwingend Presse-, Meinungs- und Versammlungsfreiheit. Deshalb sind diese Grundrechte demokratiekonstituierend. F&uuml;r eine solche Auseinandersetzung braucht es aber auch eine ausreichende Informationsgrundlage &uuml;ber die Bewegungen. Der Verfassungsgeber hat mit dem Verfassungsschutz eine nachrichtendienstliche Informationssammlung eingerichtet; der einfache Gesetzgeber hat entschieden, diese Erkenntnisse der &Ouml;ffentlichkeit eingeschr&auml;nkt zug&auml;nglich zu machen. Das Grundgesetz steht dem auch unstrittig nicht grunds&auml;tzlich entgegen.</p>
<p>Diese Form der Informierung verfolgt dabei einen inh&auml;rent politischen Zweck: Die Bev&ouml;lkerung soll vor dem erkannten und markierten &bdquo;Feind&ldquo; gewarnt werden. Dass damit gleich ein Quasi-Verbot einhergeht, wie es einst <em>Dieter Murswiek</em> nahelegte (&bdquo;Man braucht eine Partei nicht zu verbieten, um ihr die Chance auf Verwirklichung ihrer politischen Ideen zu nehmen&ldquo;, <em>Murswiek</em>, NVwZ 2004, 769 [769]), darf zwar mehr als bezweifelt werden. Der Verfassungsschutzbericht ist aber zweifelsohne auch &bdquo;kein beliebiges Erzeugnis staatlicher &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit&ldquo; (BVerfGE 113, 63 [77 <a href="" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rn. 54</a>]). Er ist durchaus Mittel des politischen Meinungskampfes und will den &bdquo;Feind&ldquo; politisch-gesellschaftlich isolieren. Dass die Verfassungsordnung diese Einwirkung auf die politische Willensbildung in Kauf nimmt, erkl&auml;rt sich vor dem Hintergrund der deutschen Geschichte der NS-Diktatur. Denn die Wehrlosigkeit Weimars war in erster Linie keine rechtliche, sondern eine geistige. Bev&ouml;lkerung wie Beamtentum waren demokratisch nur unzureichend verwurzelt. Ein Verfassungsschutzbericht als Instrument der pr&auml;ventiven Gefahrenabwehr kann und soll zwar nicht politisch-inhaltlich &uuml;berzeugen. Er kann aber demokratiezersetzende Str&ouml;mungen und Strategien aufzeigen sowie deren Urheber benennen. Damit legt er vor allem die Grundlage einer politischen Diskussion in Presse und Bev&ouml;lkerung. Letztere ist in ihrer Willensbildung weiter frei, sie soll aber &ndash; so der Gedanke &ndash; zumindest wissen, f&uuml;r was sie sich entscheidet. Das angesprochene Spannungsverh&auml;ltnis l&ouml;st sich also nicht auf. Unter der bewussten Entscheidung, die Freiheit um der Freiheit willen einzuschr&auml;nken, bleibt es bestehen.</p>
<h2>Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen als Indiz extremistischer Verhaltensweisen</h2>
<p>Schon die mittelbare Ankn&uuml;pfung an Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen verlangt Zur&uuml;ckhaltung &ndash; seitens des Gesetzgebers ebenso wie, in gesteigertem Ma&szlig;, seitens der Exekutive. Um Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen im Verfassungsschutzbericht auff&uuml;hren und als Tatsachengrundlage f&uuml;r eine Einstufung heranziehen zu k&ouml;nnen, muss das BMI ebenso wie bei T&auml;tigkeiten nachweisen k&ouml;nnen, dass die &Auml;u&szlig;erung Ausdruck einer extremistischen Bestrebung ist. Dieser Nachweis ist schwerer zu erbringen als bei T&auml;tigkeiten und muss deshalb umso verdichteter sein.</p>
<p>Jedenfalls nicht ausreichend, um im Verfassungsschutzbericht genannt zu werden, ist die &ndash; auch &ndash; radikale Kritik an einzelnen Elementen der Verfassungsordnung oder ihre Ablehnung als solche (BVerfGE 113, 63 [82 Rn. <a href="" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">72</a>]). Positiv gewendet werden Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen hingegen dann zum Ausdruck eines zielgerichteten Bestrebens, wenn sie den Aufruf oder Appell enthalten, die formulierte Kritik mit Gewalt umzusetzen oder das adressierte Publikum gezielt dazu provoziert werden soll. F&uuml;r eine Bestrebung nach &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 3 BVerfSchG ist der Gewaltbezug zwingend (vgl. auch Rn. <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865#:~:text=49" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">49</a> ff. im Beschluss). Niedrigschwelliger &ndash; aber subsumtiv noch schwieriger einzuordnen sind Bestrebungen gegen die freiheitlich-demokratische Grundordnung nach &sect; 3 Abs. 1 Nr. 1 BVerfSchG, weil die &Auml;u&szlig;erungen dort potenziell auch ohne Gewaltbezug Ausdruck der Zielgerichtetheit sein k&ouml;nnen. Beim Ausloten der Grenzf&auml;lle m&uuml;ssen BfV und BMI sich nicht k&uuml;nstlich naiv stellen. Im Gegenteil: Die &Auml;u&szlig;erungen sind in beide Richtungen, d.h. entlastend und belastend, zu kontextualisieren. So ber&uuml;cksichtigte auch das Verwaltungsgericht, dass sich &Auml;u&szlig;erungen des Vereinsvorsitzenden auffinden lie&szlig;en, in denen er die Gr&auml;ueltaten der Hamas am 7. Oktober als Massaker bezeichnete, was es als entlastend f&uuml;r die Relativierung und Rechtfertigung eben dieses Massakers empfand (Rn. <a href="https://gesetze.berlin.de/bsbe/document/NJRE001641865#:~:text=insbesondere%20weil%20der%20Vorsitzende%20im%20Hinblick%20auf%20den%20Angriff%20vom%207%2E%C2%A0Oktober%202023%20auch%20von%20%E2%80%9EMassaker%E2%80%9C%20und%20%E2%80%9EKriegsverbrechen%E2%80%9C%20spricht" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">62</a>, 79). Meinungs&auml;u&szlig;erungen sind in Wechselwirkung zur Art, Form oder dem Forum einschlie&szlig;lich dessen kalkulierbarer Dynamiken zu sehen. So wird es nicht ausreichen, das Existenzrecht eines Staates zu leugnen, um als extremistisch klassifiziert zu werden. Wird daraus aber der Schluss gezogen, dass die Bewohner des Staates legitime Ziele von Gewalt sein sollen oder (Kriegs-)Verbrechen an ihnen gerechtfertigt seien, liegt die Sache schnell (aber wie der Beschluss zeigt, nicht zwingend) anders.</p>
<p>Die faktischen Beschr&auml;nkungen des Instruments sind dabei offenkundig. Gruppierungen und Parteien k&ouml;nnen sich mit einem Mindestma&szlig; an Disziplin Kommunikationsstrategien aufgeben, die explizite Gewaltaufrufe ausschlie&szlig;en und dabei trotzdem Menschen herabw&uuml;rdigen und verhetzen. Im Zweifel ist eine diskursverschiebende Salamitaktik sogar effektiver, weil Gruppierungen und Parteien so nicht nur bereits radikalisierte Menschen erreichen, sondern auch weitere Personengruppen radikalisieren k&ouml;nnen.</p>
<h2>Exekutive Bewusstseinssch&auml;rfung</h2>
<p>Die Beschr&auml;nktheit muss dabei aber keine Schw&auml;che sein, vielmehr sch&auml;rft sie das Bewusstsein in mehrfacher Hinsicht. Zun&auml;chst einmal sind die verfassungs- und einfachrechtlichen Grenzen der Nennung einer Gruppierung in einem Verfassungsschutzbericht eng gezogen. Die Entscheidung f&uuml;r das Konzept der wehrhaften Demokratie erm&ouml;glicht zwar eine im internationalen Vergleich ungew&ouml;hnliche Form nachrichtendienstlicher &Ouml;ffentlichkeitsarbeit. Auch &ndash; oder gerade &ndash; eine wehrhafte Verfassungsordnung schlie&szlig;t jedoch staatliche Eingriffe allein wegen des &bdquo;Habens&ldquo; einer gleich wie schwer ertr&auml;glichen Meinung aus. Eine liberale Verfassungsordnung kann und muss den faktischen und rechtlichen Rahmen sch&uuml;tzen, in dem die B&uuml;rgerinnen und B&uuml;rger diese Konflikte austragen k&ouml;nnen.</p>
<p>Die rechtliche Seite der Beschr&auml;nktheit spiegelt sich auch tats&auml;chlich wider. Ist sich eine Gruppierung oder Partei der eigenen Radikalit&auml;t bewusst, l&auml;sst sich das Risiko der Aufkl&auml;rung und Warnung durch BfV und BMI relativ einfach reduzieren. Dies gilt umso mehr, als sich Kommunikationsformen und -foren derart schnell ver&auml;ndern, dass es auch f&uuml;r die darauf spezialisierten Beh&ouml;rden schwer sein kann, die Entwicklungen rechtzeitig zu verstehen. Dies ist in doppelter Hinsicht problematisch. Einerseits k&ouml;nnen tats&auml;chliche Gewaltverherrlichungen oder -aufrufe missverstanden und untersch&auml;tzt werden (etwa wenn sie durch unverf&auml;ngliche Emojis erfolgen oder Akteure bewusst ins <a href="https://www.bpb.de/lernen/digitale-bildung/werkstatt/571446/dog-whistle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ungef&auml;hre</a> fl&uuml;chten). Andersherum kann das Bewusstsein &uuml;ber diese Limitierung auch zu &Uuml;berambitionen und &Uuml;bergriffigkeiten f&uuml;hren. Dies wiederum f&uuml;hrt mittelfristig zum <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/verfassungsschutz-gutachten-afd/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verlust der Glaubw&uuml;rdigkeit</a> des BfV und des BMI, nicht nur bei zur Radikalit&auml;t neigenden Gruppen, sondern auch bei der restlichen Bev&ouml;lkerung (insgesamt dazu auch <em>Mannewitz</em>, GSZ 2024, 266 [266 ff.]). Der Eindruck, der Staat sch&uuml;tze nicht die Verfassung, sondern sich selbst oder politische Ziele, ist dann schnell bei der Hand. Unterliegen BfV oder BMI vor Gericht, weil sie zu fr&uuml;h zu weit gegriffen haben, konterkarieren sie schlimmstenfalls ihren eigenen Zweck: Auf der kommunikativen Ebene sch&uuml;tzen sie damit nicht die Verfassung, sondern st&auml;rken die Opfererz&auml;hlung derer, die sie bek&auml;mpfen.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/verfassungsschutzbericht-judische-stimme/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sensibilit&auml;t, nicht Nervosit&auml;t</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-27T13:26:27+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Malte Stemkowitz</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-27T13:26:27+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="bundesamt für verfassungsschutz"/>

	<category term="deutschland"/>

	<category term="meinungsfreiheit"/>

	<category term="mpi-csl-beitrag"/>

	<category term="verfassungsschutzbericht"/>

	<category term="wehrhafte demokratie"/>


</entry>

<entry>
	<id>tag:vifa-recht.de,2026-05-27:/288857</id>
	<link href="https://verfassungsblog.de/on-the-renewal-of-media-regulation/" rel="alternate" type="text/html"/>
	<title type="html">On the Renewal of Media Regulation</title>
	<summary type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The opposition&rsquo;s two-thirds electoral victory has opened the way for a comprehensive renewal of Hung...</p>]]></summary>
	<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>The opposition&rsquo;s two-thirds electoral victory has opened the way for a comprehensive renewal of Hungarian media regulation. This renewal is also being urged by the <a href="https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-calls-hungary-comply-european-media-freedom-act-and-audiovisual-media-services-directive" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">infringement procedure</a> the European Commission launched against Hungary. Although the legislator must obviously respond to the legacy of the past sixteen years, lasting success can only be achieved if we are also able to learn from the thirty years of experience with Hungarian media governance.</p>
<h2>The Problems Lie in the Law</h2>
<p>The 2026 election campaign brought a range of major problem areas in this field into sharp relief. These include the public media, which had become a primary vehicle for disinformation; a nationwide media network disseminating literally identical content; inadequate protection and support of journalists in high-stakes situations (for example, against spyware or the withholding of public-interest information); and political campaigns financed with public funds, amongst others. Many of these problems can directly be traced back to regulatory causes (ie they are not simply the result of deficient institutional culture or abusive political practices). This makes the need for new Hungarian media regulation evident.</p>
<p>The 2010 reforms either eliminated the guarantee of pluralism from the institutional framework (as in the case of the media authority) or hollowed it out of any real meaning (as in the case of the public service media). Moreover, the legislation of that period established media governance bodies which lacked safeguards for diversity, while operating within an extremely centralised structure. The media authority was granted, under a so-called convergent model &ndash; that is, through the centralisation of state supervision of the media and telecommunications sectors &ndash; all existing powers relating to traditional media. At the same time, public service media channels produced their programme under a single company (Duna Zrt.) and a single centralised content producer (MTVA). Significant state spending distorted the media market in the absence of adequate regulation, paying little heed to transparency and pluralism. Regulatory deficiencies also made the work of journalists more difficult. For example, the inadequacy of ministerial oversight over secret surveillance has been condemned in <em><a href="https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-160020" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Szab&oacute; and Vissy v. Hungary</a></em> in 2016, and in the field of freedom of information requests, an <a href="https://k.blog.hu/2024/11/19/what_has_the_hungarian_government_done_in_freedom_of_information_since?utm_medium=doboz&amp;utm_campaign=bloghu_cimlap&amp;utm_source=nagyvilag" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasingly restrictive</a> legal environment and Constitutional Court jurisprudence reinforced the authorities&rsquo; tendency toward non-disclosure.</p>
<h2>The Role of Institutional Culture</h2>
<p>From a constitutional perspective, there can be no doubt that these regulatory deficiencies must now be remedied. In doing so, however, it is necessary to come to terms not only with the legacy of the past decade, but also with thirty years of negative experience. Although the 1996 Media Act made a genuine and fair effort to institutionalize balanced political representation and civil participation, in practice political parity led to unacceptable and corrupt bargains (symbolically, the closing act of the earlier system was the <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/1b2d037c-ca56-11de-a3a3-00144feabdc0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">resignation of L&aacute;szl&oacute; Majt&eacute;nyi</a>, chairman of the media council, following the partisan allocation of national radio frequencies), and what had begun as a sincere attempt to involve civil society ultimately degenerated into an undisguised puppet show orchestrated by political parties. The usual rule on importing foreign theoretical models also applies here though: we should be aware that in a different cultural environment they might work differently. Or not at all. Unfortunately, given the deeply rooted public and social reflexes surrounding media governance, there is a grave danger of relapsing into what has been dubbed <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/transitional-justice-after-hybrid-regimes/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&ldquo;institutional alcoholism&rdquo;</a>.</p>
<p>However, certain significant developments provide some grounds for hope. First, the painful experience collectively endured by a large part of the society may have a sobering effect and lead to a renewed commitment to a stable institutional culture. Public trust in the news services of Hungarian public media has fallen to an unprecedented low in recent years. The deep mistrust of the media among four-fifths of the population is alarming in <a href="https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">international comparison</a> and may itself become the foundation for a genuine public demand for a well-functioning public service media system.</p>
<p>Second, owing to the legislative developments of recent years, the European Union&rsquo;s current legal framework establishes firmer guardrails than previously. The European Media Freedom Act requires institutional guarantees ensuring pluralism and functional independence &ndash; beyond merely formal criteria &ndash; both for public service media and for media authorities, while also seeking to curb governmental abuses in the allocation of state funds, and to strengthen the protection of journalists. The infringement procedure launched against Hungary covers all of these legislative developments.</p>
<p>Third, the media environment has been radically transformed by the internet and social media, rendering the current media regulation anachronistic. Arguably, adapting the regulatory framework to these changed circumstances calls for a liberating form of deregulation in the field of media oversight. The two-thirds parliamentary majority of the new government enables it to make constitutionally significant changes affecting media regulation not only in a formal but also in a substantive sense, since its political intention to pursue such reforms was articulated <a href="https://s3-eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/greenfo.hu/wp-media-folder-greenfo/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/a-mukodo-es-emberseges-magyarorszag-alapjai-tisza-program.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expressis verbis</a> during the election campaign.</p>
<p>Preliminary regulatory questions may include whether, in a digitised public sphere dominated by social media, media regulation still warrants special legislative attention at all, and whether there will continue to be a need for public service media in the future. These dilemmas &ndash; along with many other important details &ndash; require intensive public discussion. My hope is that the final answer to both questions will ultimately be affirmative: the recent experience of the Hungarian public sphere demonstrates precisely the kinds of distortions that can arise from anomalies in the legal environment governing the traditional media system and journalism. It also reaffirms the role that a public service media provider, committed to constitutional principles and regarded as credible by a significant portion of society, can play in public discourse. Media regulation therefore remains a matter of outstanding constitutional importance, requiring the adoption of approaches suited to the twenty-first century. What guiding principles might shape such approaches in Hungarian regulation?</p>
<h2>Narrowly Tailored Media Oversight With Institutional Guarantees of Pluralism</h2>
<p>Media regulation should be narrowly tailored, and the competences of the media authority should be even more narrowly defined and decentralised. Although I myself was once an enthusiastic supporter of broader media law regulation, in today&rsquo;s media environment &ndash; where the social influence of traditional media has become increasingly relativised &ndash; the maintenance of special content regulation and extensive regulatory powers is no longer justified in many respects. Media oversight should therefore be limited to a carefully circumscribed set of functions that can be justified either by the constitutional requirement of pluralism or by obligations under EU law, while structurally excluding the possibility of regulatory overreach from the outset. Such functions could include frequency-allocation procedures, control of media market concentrations, a normative funding system for quality journalism, regulations protecting minors, and the enforcement of narrowly defined impartiality requirements. Beyond these specific details, the decentralisation of media oversight should begin with two decisive reforms. First, the telecommunications sector &ndash; which properly belongs within the sphere of ordinary governmental competence &ndash; should be separated from media supervision. Second, the media authority&rsquo;s institutional powers over public service media (appointment and dismissal competences) should be abolished.</p>
<p>Institutional guarantees of pluralism must once again be integral to the operation of the media authority. If the authority continues to function in a collegial form &ndash; which I consider reasonable in order to ensure broad-based access to information concerning the functioning of the media system &ndash; then pluralism must be reflected in the composition of the body itself. At the same time, consideration should be given to extending this pluralism beyond the parliamentary parties alone (as was the case under the 1996 Media Act) to ensure proper representation of the journalistic profession.</p>
<p>The limitation of the media authority&rsquo;s powers should be accompanied by an increased role for &ldquo;softer&rdquo; oversight mechanisms tasked with monitoring and credibly assessing developments within the public sphere. An independent and respected body, detached from all relevant actors (for example, a media ombudsman), could perform an invaluable function in identifying troubling, undemocratic tendencies within the media system and public discourse.</p>
<h2>Pluralistic and Decentralised Public Service Media</h2>
<p>The institutional reorganisation of the public service media should likewise be guided by the principles of decentralisation and guarantees of diversity. In this area, the need for social representation extending beyond political parties is beyond question: alongside political actors, civil society organisations and representatives of the journalistic profession must also be given meaningful roles in the governing structure. Experiences prior to 2010 demonstrated that designing such a system in a creative and workable manner is a considerable challenge.</p>
<p>Decentralisation is another key issue for public service media. As with the media authority, the lessons of the past thirty years do not suggest that it is safe to establish strongly centralised decision-making structures, even with appropriate organisational safeguards. Decentralisation may take many forms &ndash; ranging from multiple media service providers enjoying substantial autonomy to genuinely independent regional editorial offices &ndash; and the most suitable model should be identified through professional consultation. At the same time, a solid starting point would be the restoration of a separate and independent national news agency, upon which the entire media market could rely as a credible source of information.</p>
<h2>Protecting and Supporting Journalism</h2>
<p>The regulatory environment supporting journalistic work should be strengthened. Subjecting covert surveillance measures to judicial oversight, and introducing additional safeguards into the system governing access to information of public interest, would protect not only journalists but the fundamental rights of all affected individuals. At the same time, recognition of the special role and status of journalists may justify additional guarantees even alongside strengthened general protections. Drawing inspiration from the <a href="https://search.coe.int/cm#%22CoEIdentifier%22:%5B%220900001680a5ddd0%22%5D,%22sort%22:%5B%22CoEValidationDate%20Descending%22%5D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">recommendations of the Council of Europe</a>, a comprehensive framework for the support and protection of quality journalism should also be established.</p>
<h2>Two-Step Approach</h2>
<p>All this will require complex legislative work that cannot be accomplished through a single act of immediate intervention; accordingly, progress in this field <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/hungary-constitutional-repair/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">must proceed in two stages</a>. In order to secure sufficient support for institutional arrangements capable of functioning effectively in the long term, certain issues &ndash; such as the twenty-first-century portfolio of public service media, or the framework for supporting journalism &ndash; require broad professional and public consultation, while others &ndash; such as the final competences of the media authority, or the establishment of a media ombudsman &ndash; necessitate carefully developed legislative work.</p>
<p>At the same time, with regard to immediate intervention, media legislation has an even clearer legal basis than many other fields: in addition to constitutional requirements, urgent action is also compelled by the European Union&rsquo;s ongoing infringement procedure. Since the concerns identified by the European Commission coincide with the tasks that must be carried out under Hungarian constitutional law, they should be carefully taken into account when adopting the first measures. From the list of tasks outlined above, this certainly includes the establishment of institutional structures guaranteeing pluralism in the operation of both public service media and the media authority. The authority&rsquo;s appointment and dismissal competences over public service media must be abolished, and the decentralisation of the convergent regulatory model through the separation of telecommunications might feasibly be included among the first legislative steps. The newly pluralistic media authority should be enabled to conduct substantive examinations of emerging media concentration cases. The restoration of a separate and independent national news agency is likewise a task that cannot be postponed. The first round of legislation should also establish the fundamental rules governing state media expenditure and put in place the most urgent safeguards for the protection of journalists (and indeed all citizens). Crucially, covert surveillance measures must be subjected to judicial oversight, and the effective enforcement of freedom of information must be guaranteed against abusive administrative practices.</p>
<p>While these initial measures should clearly be adopted as soon as possible, all the other tasks outlined above should likewise be pursued without delay in order to ensure that the Hungarian media system and journalism can begin operating within a renewed regulatory framework in the near future. Once the legislator has completed this monumental task, the harder part will begin: ensuring that the system of media governance operates in accordance with an institutional culture committed to pluralism, dialogue, constitutional values, and sound public policy.</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de/on-the-renewal-of-media-regulation/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">On the Renewal of Media Regulation</a> appeared first on <a href="https://verfassungsblog.de" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Verfassungsblog</a>.</p>]]></content>
	<updated>2026-05-27T13:14:39+00:00</updated>
	<author><name>Bernát Török</name></author>
	<source>
		<id>http://verfassungsblog.de</id>
		<link rel="self" href="http://verfassungsblog.de"/>
		<updated>2026-05-27T13:14:39+00:00</updated>
		<title>Verfassungsblog</title></source>

	<category term="english articles"/>

	<category term="focus"/>

	<category term="freedom of information"/>

	<category term="hungary"/>

	<category term="media"/>

	<category term="on law and politics in the hungarian transition"/>

	<category term="pluralism"/>

	<category term="public service media"/>

	<category term="schwerpunkte"/>

	<category term="ungarn"/>


</entry>


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